Social Groups - Meaning and Types | Sociology

Human beings do not live in isolation. From the family in which a person is born to the school, workplace, neighbourhood, religious community, political organisation, or professional body to which they may later belong, much of social life is experienced through groups. Groups provide individuals with a sense of belonging, shape their behaviour, transmit norms and values, and influence the development of social identity.

In sociology, however, every collection of people is not necessarily a social group. People standing together at a bus stop, for instance, form an aggregate, but they may not constitute a social group because they may have little or no interaction, common identity, or continuing relationship. A social group involves some degree of interaction, mutual awareness, shared expectations, and a sense of belonging or common purpose.

Meaning of Social Group

A social group may broadly be understood as a collection of individuals who interact with one another, share certain expectations or interests, and recognise themselves as belonging to the same social unit.

• According to Ogburn and Nimkoff, a social group is a collection of individuals who have reciprocal relations with one another.
• For Harry M. Johnson, a social group is a system of social interaction in which the members have certain expectations concerning one another’s behaviour.

The important point is that mere physical proximity does not create a social group. What makes a group sociologically significant is the existence of social relationships and interaction among its members. A classroom, for example, is more than a collection of students when the students regularly interact, recognise one another as members of the class, follow common rules and participate in common activities.

Thus, a social group generally involves interaction, mutual awareness, common interests or expectations, a degree of unity, and some continuity of relationship.

Characteristics of Social Groups

Although groups differ considerably in size, organisation and purpose, most social groups possess certain common characteristics.

1. Interaction among Members – Social interaction is the basic foundation of a group. Members communicate with and respond to one another, whether through direct face-to-face interaction or, increasingly, through digital means. A group of students who regularly discuss academic matters, participate in activities and respond to one another is therefore different from a crowd of strangers gathered temporarily at a railway station.
2. Mutual Awareness – Members of a social group are conscious, to some extent, of one another and of their membership in the group. This awareness helps distinguish a social group from a mere aggregate of individuals.
3. Common Interests or Goals – Members generally have some interests, expectations, values or objectives in common. The commonality may be strong, as in a family, or relatively limited, as in a professional organisation formed to pursue a particular objective.
4. Sense of Belonging – A social group usually creates some feeling of identification or belonging among its members. The strength of this feeling varies considerably from one group to another.
5. Social Norms and Expectations – Groups develop norms and expectations that influence how members are expected to behave. These may be formally stated, as in an organisation, or informal, as in a group of friends.
6. Relative Continuity – A social group normally has some degree of continuity. A temporary gathering such as a crowd may disappear once the immediate situation ends, whereas a family, association or professional group continues beyond a particular occasion.
7. Group Structure – Larger or more organised groups often develop statuses, roles, leadership patterns and rules that regulate relationships among members.
8. Groups are Dynamic – Social groups are not static but dynamic. They are subject to changes whether slow or rapid. Old members die and new members are born. Whether due to internal or external pressures or forces, groups undergo changes.
9. Influence on Personality – Social groups directly or indirectly shape the personality of their members. They also provide opportunities for the expression of individuality.

Types of Social Groups

Sociologists have classified social groups in different ways because groups vary according to their size, intimacy, purpose, organisation and relationship with their members.

The following classifications are particularly important:

1. Primary and Secondary Groups
2. Organised and Unorganised Groups
3. In-Groups and Out-Groups
4. Reference Groups

1. Primary and Secondary Groups

One of the most influential classifications was given by Charles Horton Cooley, who distinguished between primary groups and secondary groups. Cooley introduced the concept in his work Social Organization (1909).

Primary Group

A primary group is a relatively small group characterised by close, personal, intimate and enduring relationships among its members.

The family is the classic example. Close friendship groups may also function as primary groups.

Primary groups are important in the formation of personality and socialisation because individuals develop many of their basic attitudes, values and patterns of behaviour through intimate interaction with others. They generally fulfil expressive and emotional needs rather than merely practical objectives.

Characteristics of primary groups include:

• close and face-to-face interaction;
• personal and relatively intimate relationships;
• comparatively small size;
• emotional attachment and a sense of belonging;
• relative permanence;
• importance in socialisation and personality development.

The relationships in primary groups are generally valued for their own sake, rather than merely as a means to achieve an external objective.

Secondary Group

A secondary group is generally larger and more impersonal, with relationships formed primarily around a particular purpose, task or objective.

Examples include a university, a political organisation, a professional association, a corporation or a large workplace.

Unlike primary groups, secondary groups generally fulfil more instrumental or goal-oriented functions. Relationships may be formal and limited to particular roles.

However, the distinction is not absolute. A secondary relationship may gradually develop into a close personal relationship. For example, colleagues who initially interact only for professional purposes may eventually develop genuine friendships.

Comparison Table

2. Organised and Unorganised Groups

Social groups may also be distinguished on the basis of the degree of organisation, structure and regulation present among their members. From this perspective, groups are broadly classified as organised and unorganised groups.

Organised Groups

An organised group possesses a relatively definite structure. Its members have recognised positions and roles, and its activities are generally guided by established rules, procedures or objectives.

Examples include:

• political parties;
• trade unions;
• professional associations;
• corporations;
• universities; and
• government organisations.

Organisation gives the group a degree of stability and continuity.

Unorganised Groups

An unorganised group lacks a clearly established structure and does not normally have formally defined statuses, roles or procedures. Such groups may emerge spontaneously in response to a particular situation or event. They may be temporary and may disappear once the immediate situation ends.

Important forms of unorganised groups include crowds, mobs and publics.

• Crowd – A crowd is a relatively temporary collection of people who are physically gathered at a particular place, often around a common focus of attention. For example, people gathering to watch an accident or a public performance may constitute a crowd. A crowd does not necessarily have a permanent organisation, leadership or clearly defined membership.
• Mob – A mob is a type of crowd characterised by a stronger emotional reaction and a tendency towards collective and sometimes aggressive action. For example, a gathering of people that becomes emotionally charged and engages in destructive or violent behaviour may develop into a mob. It is important to understand that a crowd does not automatically become a mob. The distinction lies principally in the intensity of collective emotion and behaviour.
• Public – A public differs from a crowd because its members need not be physically present in one place. A public consists of people who are dispersed but share an interest in, or concern about, a particular issue. For example, people across different cities discussing a proposed policy or social issue may constitute a public.

3. In-Groups and Out-Groups

The distinction between in-group and out-group is associated particularly with William Graham Sumner.

• In-Group: An in-group is a group with which an individual identifies and to which they feel they belong. It is experienced as “we”.
• Out-Group: An out-group, by contrast, is a group to which the individual does not belong and which is perceived as “they” or “the others.”

Depending upon circumstances, the relationship between an in-group and an out-group may involve indifference, competition, hostility or even prejudice.

For example, supporters of one sports team may regard themselves as an in-group while viewing supporters of a rival team as an out-group. Similar distinctions can occur in relation to ethnicity, religion, profession, political affiliation, region or other identities.

The distinction is sociologically important because group identification can strengthen solidarity within a group but can also produce exclusion and prejudice toward outsiders.

4. Reference Groups

The concept of the reference group is associated with Herbert Hyman. A reference group is a group that an individual use as a standard for comparison or as a source of norms, values and behavioural expectations.

A person does not necessarily have to be a member of a reference group. An individual may compare their lifestyle, achievements, appearance, education or professional aspirations with people whom they admire or regard as a standard.

For example, a student may regard successful civil servants, academics, entrepreneurs or athletes as a reference group and compare their own achievements and lifestyle with them. Similarly, a person may adopt the dress, language or lifestyle associated with a group they aspire to join.

Reference groups therefore help individuals evaluate “where I stand” and “how I ought to behave.” They can influence both aspirations and decisions about which behaviours to adopt or reject.

Other Classifications of Social Groups

Sociology also uses several other ways of classifying groups.

1. Formal and Informal Groups

• Formal groups are deliberately organised around defined objectives and rules. Political parties, universities and corporations are examples.
• Informal groups arise primarily through personal relationships, common interests and spontaneous interaction. A friendship circle within a workplace is an example.

2. Voluntary and Involuntary Groups

Groups may also be distinguished according to the nature of membership.

• In a voluntary group, individuals generally choose to become members, such as a club or professional association.
• In an involuntary group, membership arises largely from circumstances beyond individual choice, such as one’s family of birth.

Social Group, Aggregate and Social Category

It is useful to distinguish a social group from two related concepts.

• An aggregate is simply a collection of people who happen to be present in the same place or situation at a particular time. People waiting at a bus stop are an example. They may interact, but there need not be a continuing relationship among them.
• A social category consists of people who share a particular social characteristic but who may have no direct interaction with one another. For example, all persons between the ages of 18 and 21 form an age category, but they do not necessarily constitute a social group.
• A social group, in contrast, involves social interaction and some degree of mutual awareness and relationship.

This distinction is useful because it reminds us that mere similarity or physical proximity is insufficient to constitute a social group.

Importance of Social Groups

Social groups are fundamental to social life. Their importance can be understood in several ways.

1. Groups provide socialisation – Family, peer groups, schools and other groups teach individuals language, norms, values and appropriate patterns of behaviour.
2. Groups provide identity and belonging – Individuals develop part of their social identity through the groups with which they associate.
3. Groups regulate behaviour – Group norms and expectations influence what members consider acceptable or unacceptable behaviour.
4. Groups fulfil social and emotional needs – Particularly in primary groups, individuals receive companionship, affection, emotional support and a sense of security.
5. Groups facilitate collective action – People can pursue common objectives more effectively by organising themselves into groups. Social, political, economic and cultural activities are therefore deeply dependent upon group life.

Thus, group life is not merely one aspect of society; it is one of the principal ways through which social relationships are organised and sustained.

Conclusion

Social groups are fundamental units of social interaction. They connect individuals with wider society and influence their behaviour, identity, values and opportunities. At the same time, different groups operate in different ways. A family and a corporation, a political organisation and a crowd, or an individual’s own group and their reference group cannot be understood in exactly the same manner.

The major classifications: Primary and Secondary Groups, Organised and Unorganised Groups, In-Groups and Out-Groups, and Reference Groups, help us understand these differences.