Norms - Meaning, Definitions and Functions | Sociology

Human beings do not live in society merely by satisfying their individual needs. Social life requires some degree of order, regularity and predictability in behaviour. In every society, there are certain accepted standards which tell people how they are expected to behave in particular situations. These standards are known as social norms.

Norms are an essential part of culture. They arise from the values of a society and provide practical guidelines for conduct. While values tell us what is considered desirable or undesirable, norms indicate how people are expected to behave in particular circumstances. Thus, norms translate general social values into specific rules of behaviour.

For example, respect for elders is a value in many societies. The ways in which this value is expressed, such as greeting elders respectfully, using appropriate forms of address or seeking their advice, are governed by social norms. In this sense, norms provide concrete patterns of behaviour corresponding to the values of a society.

Meaning of Norms

The word norm is derived from the Latin word norma, meaning a rule, standard or pattern. In sociology, norms refer to the socially accepted rules, standards or patterns which guide and regulate the behaviour of members of a group or society.

Norms tell individuals what they are expected to do, what they ought not to do and how they should behave in particular social situations. They are therefore an important mechanism of social control.

A society cannot function effectively if every individual behaves entirely according to personal wishes without regard for the expectations of others. Norms provide a framework within which individual behaviour takes place. They make social interaction relatively predictable and help individuals understand what is expected of them.

Norms are not necessarily written down. Many of them are learned informally through family life, interaction with others and the process of socialisation. Others may be formally expressed in laws, regulations or institutional rules.

Thus, norms may range from simple everyday expectations, such as waiting for one’s turn in a queue, to highly formal rules such as laws governing property, marriage or political conduct.

Definitions of Norms

Different sociologists have explained norms by emphasising their character as rules, standards or expectations of behaviour.

• According to H. M. Johnson, “A norm is an abstract pattern held in mind that sets certain limits for behaviour.”

Johnson’s definition draws attention to two important aspects of norms. First, a norm is an abstract pattern rather than one particular act. Second, it establishes limits for behaviour, indicating what kinds of conduct are considered appropriate or inappropriate in a given situation.

• According to Robert Bierstedt, “A norm is a rule or standard that governs our conduct in the social situations in which we participate.”

Bierstedt’s definition particularly emphasises the regulatory character of norms. They function as rules or standards which guide conduct when individuals participate in social life.

• In the broader sociological tradition, W. G. Sumner made an important contribution to the understanding of social norms through his distinction between folkways and mores. He showed that norms vary in their degree of importance and in the sanctions attached to their violation.

From these approaches, norms can broadly be understood as socially approved standards of behaviour which prescribe or regulate the conduct of individuals and groups in particular situations.

The important elements contained in the concept are therefore:

• norms are socially created and shared;
• they provide standards or rules of behaviour;
• they specify what people are expected to do or avoid doing;
• they are learned through socialisation;
• they are supported by social sanctions; and
• they help maintain social order and interaction.

Characteristics of Norms

1. Norms are universal – Norms are found in all societies, although the particular norms of one society may differ from those of another. Every society requires some standards to regulate behaviour and make social interaction possible. Even societies that differ greatly in their level of technological or institutional development possess norms governing interpersonal relations, family life, authority, cooperation and other forms of social behaviour. Thus, the existence of norms is universal, while their particular content is culturally variable.
2. Norms are related to the factual and normative order – Social life may be understood in terms of both a factual order and a normative order. The factual order concerns how people actually behave, whereas the normative order concerns how people are expected to behave according to socially accepted standards. The two are closely related, but they should not be confused. A norm does not necessarily describe what people actually do; rather, it specifies what they are expected to do. For example, a society may have a norm against dishonesty even though some individuals may actually behave dishonestly. The existence of violation does not itself mean that the norm has ceased to exist. Norms influence actual behaviour, while actual patterns of behaviour may, over time, contribute to changes in norms.
3. Norms are relative to situations and groups – Norms are not identical in all situations or among all groups. A particular behaviour may be appropriate in one social setting but inappropriate in another. Similarly, different groups within the same society may have different expectations concerning dress, speech, manners or interaction. For example, the manner in which an individual speaks with a close friend may differ considerably from the manner expected when addressing a teacher, senior official or religious authority. Therefore, norms are situationally and socially relative.
4. Norms are socially determined – Norms are not simply the result of individual preference. They develop within a social and cultural context and reflect the expectations of groups and societies. What is considered proper or improper behaviour is therefore partly determined by the culture in which individuals live. Differences in norms concerning greeting, dress, food, marriage, family relationships and forms of address demonstrate the influence of social and cultural conditions.
5. Norms are learned and internalised – Individuals are not born with knowledge of the norms of their society. They acquire them through the process of socialisation. The family, school, peer group, religious institutions, media and other social agencies participate in this process. Through repeated interaction, instruction, observation and participation, individuals learn what is expected of them. With time, norms may become internalised. They then operate not merely as external rules but as internal standards guiding behaviour. An individual may follow a norm even when no one is directly supervising them because the expectation has become part of their own orientation to social conduct. Thus, socialisation transforms norms from external social expectations into internal guides to behaviour.
6. Norms are shared – A norm is essentially a social standard. It must have some degree of recognition or acceptance among members of a group. A purely personal preference does not constitute a social norm merely because an individual follows it. For example, an individual's preference for a particular colour is not ordinarily a social norm. The extent of sharing can vary. Some norms are widely accepted throughout society, while others are specific to particular communities, occupations, institutions, age groups or other social categories.
7. Norms incorporate value judgments – Norms are closely connected with values. Values provide general standards concerning what is desirable, good, right or important. Norms give more specific direction to behaviour based upon such standards. Consequently, norms often contain an implicit evaluation of conduct as appropriate or inappropriate, acceptable or unacceptable, desirable or undesirable. For example, if honesty is regarded as a social value, norms against cheating, fraud or deliberate deception may express that value in specific situations. Thus, values provide the broader basis, while norms translate those general standards into expected patterns of conduct.
8. Norms regulate behaviour – The principal sociological significance of norms lies in their capacity to regulate behaviour. They tell individuals what they are expected to do and establish limits within which behaviour should occur. Because members of a group generally know these expectations, interaction becomes more orderly and predictable. Norms therefore help coordinate individual actions and make sustained social interaction possible.
9. Norms are supported by sanctions – Norms are generally accompanied by sanctions, which are the social responses associated with conformity or violation. Conformity may receive approval, praise, recognition or rewards. Violation may result in criticism, ridicule, social disapproval, exclusion, punishment or, in the case of legal norms, formal legal sanctions. The strength of the sanction usually varies according to the significance of the norm. This is why norms constitute an important mechanism of social control.
10. Norms differ in their degree of importance – Not all norms possess equal social significance. Some regulate relatively minor and ordinary aspects of everyday behaviour, while others are regarded as essential to the moral and institutional life of society and are more strongly enforced. This difference in importance is reflected in sociological classifications such as folkways, mores and laws. Certain norms are also treated as taboos, where violation is strongly prohibited and carries serious social consequences. Thus, norms exist along a continuum of social importance and sanction.
11. Norms are not always obeyed – The existence of a norm does not mean that every member of society always conforms to it. Individuals may violate norms for a variety of reasons, including conflicting interests, alternative values, inadequate socialisation or deliberate rejection of existing expectations. Therefore, we must distinguish between the existence of a norm and actual conformity to the norm. Violation of a norm may itself attract sanctions. For example, violation of a legal norm can result in formal punishment, while violation of less formal norms may result in criticism, ridicule or social disapproval. Thus, the normative order and the factual order do not always correspond perfectly.
12. Norms can change – Norms are relatively stable, but they are not permanent or immutable. Changes in social values, technology, economic organisation, political institutions, education and patterns of family life can lead to changes in norms. A behaviour that was once considered inappropriate may become accepted over time, while an established norm may weaken or disappear. Thus, norms perform the dual role of maintaining continuity and adapting to social change.

Norms and Values

Norms and values are closely related but should not be confused.

• Values are broad ideas about what a society considers desirable, good, right or important.
• Norms are the more specific rules or expectations which guide behaviour in accordance with those values.

For example, honesty is a value. The expectation that a person should not cheat, falsify information or deliberately deceive others represents norms associated with that value. Similarly, respect for human life is a value, while norms against murder and physical violence provide more specific standards of conduct.

The relationship may therefore be expressed as, “Values indicate what is desirable, while Norms indicate how people should behave.” Values provide the general cultural orientation, whereas norms give practical direction to behaviour.

Types of Social Norms

Social norms differ in their degree of importance, moral significance and the nature of sanctions attached to their violation. The most commonly discussed forms are folkways, mores, taboos and laws. The distinction among them is not always absolute, since the same behaviour may have different normative significance in different societies.

1. Folkways

The term folkways was introduced into sociology by W. G. Sumner. Folkways are the customary and habitual ways of behaving that have developed in a society or group. They arise largely through repeated practice and are followed because they are regarded as the usual or proper way of doing things.

Folkways regulate many ordinary activities of everyday life. The manner of greeting people, forms of dress, table manners, ways of addressing elders and conventions of social interaction are examples. A person who violates a folkway may be regarded as rude, ill-mannered or strange, but such a violation generally does not attract severe punishment.

Folkways are therefore less morally significant norms. Their principal function is to make everyday social interaction orderly and acceptable. They are learned largely through observation, imitation and socialisation and vary considerably from one society to another.

2. Mores

Mores are norms which have a greater degree of moral significance than folkways. The term is also associated with W. G. Sumner. Mores represent the ideas of a society concerning what is morally right or wrong, proper or improper, and are regarded as important for the welfare and continuity of the group.

Because of their moral character, violations of mores attract stronger social disapproval than violations of ordinary folkways. A person who violates an important more may face condemnation, social rejection or other serious sanctions.

Mores are closely connected with the basic values of society. For example, norms concerning honesty, respect for certain social relationships, family responsibilities or the protection of human life may acquire the character of mores. Some mores may also become embodied in formal laws, although not every more is necessarily a law.

Thus, the distinction between folkways and mores is primarily a distinction in the degree of moral importance attached to the norm.

3. Taboos

A taboo represents an especially strong form of social prohibition. It refers to conduct which is regarded as so unacceptable, forbidden or sacred that its violation evokes a very strong reaction from the group or society.

Taboos are generally associated with deeply held moral, religious or cultural beliefs. Their violation may produce intense feelings of disgust, fear, shame or moral condemnation and may result in severe social sanctions, including exclusion from the group.

The important feature of a taboo is therefore not simply that something is prohibited, but that the prohibition is deeply rooted and strongly enforced through social attitudes.

What constitutes a taboo is not universal. Practices considered taboo in one society may be accepted in another, and taboos can also change over time. This illustrates the culturally relative character of social norms.

It is useful to remember that taboos are closely related to mores. They may be regarded as the more strongly prohibited end of the normative spectrum rather than as a completely separate category in every sociological classification.

4. Laws

Laws are norms that have been formally recognised and enforced by the state. They differ from ordinary informal norms because their enforcement is entrusted to specialised legal and political institutions.

Laws prescribe certain forms of behaviour and prohibit others. Their violation may result in formal sanctions such as fines, imprisonment or other legally prescribed penalties.

For example, laws relating to theft, assault, property, contracts and public safety establish formal standards of behaviour. At the same time, laws do not exist entirely independently of society. Many laws reflect values and norms that have become sufficiently important to receive formal recognition by the state.

Thus, law represents the formal institutionalisation of certain social norms. However, it should not be assumed that everything considered morally wrong is necessarily illegal, or that every legal rule carries the same moral significance.

Functions of Social Norms

Norms perform a number of important functions in social life.

1. Regulation of behaviour – The most basic function of norms is to regulate individual and group behaviour. They establish standards concerning what people should and should not do. Without such standards, social interaction would become highly uncertain because individuals would have no commonly understood expectations regarding conduct. Norms therefore impose a degree of order upon social behaviour.
2. Maintenance of social order - Norms contribute to the maintenance of social order by encouraging people to conform to established patterns of behaviour. A society requires some degree of conformity in order to function. Traffic rules provide a simple example. Drivers are expected to follow common rules regarding movement on roads. If everyone followed entirely different rules, traffic would become chaotic. Similarly, social norms provide common expectations in family life, education, economic activity, political behaviour and other areas of social life.
3. Making behaviour predictable – Norms make social interaction more predictable. When individuals know the norms governing a situation, they can anticipate how others are likely to behave. A student entering a classroom, for instance, already has certain expectations about the conduct of the teacher and fellow students. Such predictability is essential for stable social relationships.
4. Socialisation – Norms play an important role in the process of socialisation. Through socialisation, individuals learn the standards of behaviour expected in their society. Parents teach children appropriate conduct; schools introduce institutional rules; religious institutions transmit moral expectations; and peer groups teach their own patterns of behaviour. In this way, norms are internalised by individuals and become part of their social personality.
5. Social control – Norms are one of the major instruments of social control. Social control refers to the mechanisms through which society encourages conformity and discourages behaviour that violates accepted standards. Norms are supported by sanctions. Positive sanctions encourage conformity, while negative sanctions discourage violation. For example, appreciation may encourage socially approved behaviour, while ridicule, criticism or punishment may discourage unacceptable conduct. Thus, norms make social control possible not only through formal institutions such as the police and courts but also through informal social reactions.
6. Preservation of culture – Norms help preserve the cultural patterns of a society by transmitting accepted ways of behaviour from one generation to another. Customary practices, forms of social interaction and moral expectations are reproduced through socialisation. In this way, norms contribute to cultural continuity. At the same time, because norms can change, they do not merely preserve culture. They also undergo modification when social conditions change.
7. Promotion of cooperation – Social cooperation requires some commonly accepted rules. People can cooperate more effectively when they have shared expectations about how responsibilities should be performed and how others are expected to behave. Norms therefore facilitate cooperation in family, economic, political and other social relationships.
8. Integration of society – Shared norms contribute to social integration by providing common standards of conduct. When members of a society accept certain fundamental norms, they possess a basis for mutual understanding and collective life. Norms can therefore contribute to social solidarity and cohesion. However, complete uniformity is neither necessary nor always possible. Modern societies contain different groups with their own norms, and conflicts between norms may sometimes arise.
9. Providing guidance in social situations – Norms provide individuals with guidelines for dealing with different social situations. People encounter numerous situations in everyday life in which they have to decide how to behave. Social norms reduce this uncertainty by providing established patterns of conduct. For instance, norms governing behaviour at a funeral differ from those governing behaviour at a celebration. Individuals learn these distinctions through socialisation and social experience.
10. Defining deviance – Norms also help society identify deviant behaviour. An act becomes deviant in a sociological sense when it violates significant social norms. Therefore, the concept of deviance cannot be understood without reference to the norms of a particular group or society. What is regarded as deviant in one society may be accepted in another because social norms differ across cultures and historical periods.

Norms and Social Sanctions

Norms become effective partly because they are supported by sanctions. A sanction is a social response to behaviour that either encourages conformity or discourages violation.

Sanctions may be:

• Positive or negative. Praise, rewards, honours and approval are positive sanctions, while criticism, ridicule, punishment and rejection are negative sanctions.
• Formal or informal. Formal sanctions are applied through recognised institutions, such as courts, schools or organisations. Informal sanctions operate through everyday social reactions, such as appreciation, gossip, ridicule or disapproval.

The seriousness of a sanction usually corresponds to the importance of the norm being enforced. A minor violation may attract only informal disapproval, while violation of a serious legal norm may result in formal punishment.

Norms, Conformity and Deviance

Conformity refers to behaviour that is broadly consistent with accepted social norms. Most everyday social interaction depends upon a considerable degree of conformity. However, conformity is never complete. Individuals may violate norms deliberately or unintentionally. Such violations may be treated as deviant depending upon the nature of the norm and the social reaction to the behaviour. The study of norms is therefore closely connected with the sociological study of deviance and social control.

It is also important to recognise that not every violation of a norm is necessarily harmful to society. Social change itself can sometimes involve questioning or rejecting existing norms. Movements for social reform have frequently challenged norms that were once widely accepted.

Conclusion

Social norms are socially accepted standards, rules and expectations that guide and regulate human behaviour. They constitute an important part of culture and are acquired through the process of socialisation. By prescribing appropriate forms of conduct, norms make social interaction relatively predictable and contribute to social order, cooperation, integration and social control.

Norms differ in their degree of importance and in the sanctions associated with their violation. Folkways regulate customary and relatively routine behaviour; mores have greater moral significance; taboos represent particularly strong prohibitions rooted in deeply held moral, religious or cultural beliefs; and laws are formally recognised and legally enforced norms. These categories should not be treated as completely rigid because their meaning and significance vary across societies and historical periods.

Thus, norms may be regarded as the regulative aspect of culture. They connect the values of a society with actual patterns of behaviour and provide the standards by which conformity and deviance are understood. At the same time, because society itself is dynamic, norms also change as social conditions, values and institutions change.