Culture and Civilization | Sociology

The concepts of culture and civilization occupy an important place in sociology because both are concerned with the way of life developed by human beings in society. Although the two terms are often used interchangeably in ordinary language, sociologists have attempted to distinguish between them. The distinction is particularly important because culture refers to the broader pattern of learned and shared life, whereas civilization is generally associated with the more advanced or developed material and institutional means through which human beings organise their life.

In sociological literature, however, there is no complete agreement regarding the precise distinction between the two. Thinkers such as MacIver and Page, Ogburn, and others have explained the relationship in somewhat different ways. Therefore, culture and civilization should not be treated as completely separate phenomena. Civilization is, in an important sense, a part or expression of culture, but the two concepts have different emphases.

Meaning of Culture

The term culture has a very broad meaning in sociology. It does not refer merely to refinement, education, art or intellectual achievement, as the word is sometimes understood in everyday language. In sociology, culture includes the whole way of life of a people.

It consists of the knowledge, beliefs, values, morals, customs, traditions, habits and other capabilities acquired by individuals as members of society. Culture is therefore something that is learned and transmitted socially, rather than something inherited biologically.

The famous definition given by E. B. Tylor expresses this broad conception of culture. According to him, culture is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom and other capabilities and habits acquired by human beings as members of society.

This definition is important because it makes clear that culture is not confined to any particular sphere of life. It includes both material and non-material elements.

Material objects such as houses, tools, machines, clothing and technological products form part of material culture. At the same time, beliefs, values, customs, language, traditions and norms constitute non-material culture.

Culture is thus a social heritage. An individual is born into a cultural environment and acquires its language, values, customs and patterns of behaviour through the process of socialisation.

Meaning of Civilization

The term civilization has generally been used to refer to a relatively advanced stage of social and cultural development. It is associated with the development of organised social life, scientific knowledge, technology, institutions and material conditions of living.

Civilization therefore has a strong connection with the material and organisational achievements of human beings. Roads, transport, communication, machinery, architecture, systems of administration and other technological and institutional arrangements may be regarded as expressions of civilization.

However, civilization should not simply be identified with material prosperity. The organisation of social life, the development of institutions and the accumulated knowledge and techniques of a society are also important.

• According to Samuel Huntington, civilization is “the highest cultural grouping of people and the broadest level of cultural identity. Civilization is, therefore, a comprehensive system where multiple cultures coexist under shared political, economic, and social structures.”

In sociological discussions, civilization is therefore generally understood in relation to the means developed by human beings for controlling and improving their environment and organising collective life.

Relationship Between Culture and Civilization

Culture and civilization are closely related. Both are products of human social life, and both are transmitted from one generation to another.

Culture provides the values, ideas, beliefs and patterns of behaviour within which people live, while civilization represents many of the material, technological and institutional achievements through which those values and patterns of life are expressed.

For example, a society’s cultural emphasis on education may be expressed through schools, universities, libraries and systems of communication. The institutions and technological means constitute aspects of civilization, while the underlying values attached to education belong to culture in its broader sense.

Thus, culture and civilization should not be viewed as completely independent. They develop in interaction with one another.

Distinction Between Culture and Civilization

The distinction between culture and civilization has been discussed by several sociologists. A particularly important distinction is associated with MacIver and Page.

1. Culture is related to values; civilization to means – Culture is primarily concerned with values, meanings, ideals and ways of life. Civilization is more closely associated with the means and techniques developed for achieving particular purposes. For example, the value attached to education belongs to culture, whereas the development of universities, printing technology, digital learning systems and educational infrastructure can be viewed as aspects of civilization.
2. Culture is an end in itself; civilization is often a means – Culture is often regarded as something that has intrinsic value. Art, music, literature, religion and moral ideals are valued for what they mean to human beings. Civilization, on the other hand, is often evaluated in terms of its usefulness. A machine, transport system or communication technology is developed because it helps human beings accomplish particular purposes. This distinction is not absolute, but it helps explain the different emphasis of the two concepts.
3. Culture is concerned with the inner life; civilization with external organisation – Culture includes beliefs, values, sentiments and ideals. It therefore has an important subjective or inward dimension. Civilization is more readily visible in the form of technology, institutions, material objects and organised systems. A society’s literature, religious beliefs and moral ideals are cultural expressions, whereas its transport networks, machinery and administrative systems are more readily associated with civilization.
4. Culture is qualitative; civilization is often measured quantitatively – Civilizational development can often be assessed through measurable indicators such as technological advancement, infrastructure, production, communication and institutional organisation. Culture is more difficult to measure in this manner. The artistic, moral or spiritual quality of a culture cannot easily be reduced to numerical measurements. A society may possess highly developed technology without necessarily possessing what another society considers a superior moral or artistic culture.
5. Civilization is more easily transferable – Civilizational achievements can often be borrowed or adopted from another society relatively quickly. A society can adopt a new machine, transportation system or technological innovation without necessarily adopting the entire culture from which it originated. Culture is generally more deeply rooted in the social experience of a people. Language, customs, beliefs and values cannot always be transferred in the same simple manner. This is one reason why technological change can sometimes occur much more rapidly than corresponding changes in values and social practices.

MacIver and Page on Culture and Civilization

MacIver and Page make an important distinction between culture and civilization by treating civilization largely as a means and culture as an expression of human values and ways of life.

Example: A book as a physical object, together with the technology of printing and the system of mass publication, can be considered in terms of civilization. But the ideas, knowledge, literature and values contained in the book belong to culture.

Similarly, a building may represent a civilizational achievement in terms of architecture and technology. But the religious, artistic or social meaning attached to the building belongs to culture.

Thus, civilization concerns the instrumental and organisational side of human development, whereas culture concerns the values and meanings associated with human life.

Culture Is Broader Than Mere Material Development

One of the important points in the sociological understanding of culture is that a society cannot be judged solely by its material achievements.

A society may possess advanced technology, highly developed transport and communication systems and sophisticated institutions, yet these achievements alone do not tell us everything about its culture.

Culture also includes:

• beliefs and values,
• language,
• customs and traditions,
• moral standards,
• art and literature,
• religious practices,
• social norms,
• knowledge and symbols.

Consequently, civilizational advancement does not automatically imply cultural superiority.

This distinction is particularly important because the word “civilized” has historically sometimes been used in a value-laden manner to classify societies as superior or inferior. Sociology seeks to avoid such simplistic judgments and examines cultures within their own social and historical contexts.

Characteristics of Culture

Culture possesses several important characteristics.

1. Culture is learned – A person does not inherit a particular language, custom or moral system biologically. These are acquired through interaction and socialisation.
2. Culture is socially shared – An individual may possess personal preferences, but culture consists of patterns that are shared to some extent by members of a group or society.
3. Culture is transmitted from one generation to another – Language, customs, traditions and values are passed on through family, education, religion and other institutions.
4. Culture is dynamic – It changes as society changes. New ideas and practices may be introduced, while older ones may be modified or abandoned.
5. Culture is integrated – Its various elements are interconnected. A change in one cultural element may affect other elements, although the rate of change may not be the same everywhere.

Characteristics of Civilization

Civilization is generally associated with a relatively high degree of development in the organisation of social life.

Its important features include the development of:

• scientific knowledge and technology;
• systems of transport and communication;
• economic organisation;
• political and administrative institutions;
• urban settlements;
• education and specialised occupations;
• tools and techniques for controlling the physical environment.

Civilization therefore represents the accumulated technical and organisational achievements of human beings. It enables people to perform activities with greater efficiency and to exercise greater control over their physical and social environment.

Civilization as a Part of Culture

There is an important point to remember that culture and civilization should not be treated as two completely separate spheres.

Civilization itself develops within culture. Scientific knowledge, technological innovation and institutional organisation are all human creations and are therefore cultural products in the broad sociological sense. The distinction is mainly one of emphasis and analytical use.

When we speak of culture in its broad sociological sense, we refer to the entire learned way of life. When we speak of civilization, we are usually drawing attention to the more advanced technical, material and organisational achievements of that way of life.

Therefore, Culture is the broader concept, whereas, Civilization puts emphasis on material, technical and organisational development.

Culture and Civilization in Social Change

Culture and civilization are closely connected with social change. Changes in civilization, particularly technological changes, can influence social relationships, institutions and values. The development of transportation, communication and industrial technology, for instance, has transformed patterns of family life, occupation, education, urbanisation and political participation.

At the same time, cultural values can influence the direction in which civilization develops. Scientific and technological inventions are not produced in a social vacuum. The purposes for which technology is developed and used are influenced by the values, institutions and interests of society.

Thus, the relationship is two-way. Civilizational change can influence culture, while cultural values can influence the development and use of civilization.

This is also where Ogburn’s concept of cultural lag becomes relevant. When technological or material changes occur faster than the corresponding changes in values, norms and institutions, a gap may develop between different parts of culture.

Can Civilization Exist Without Culture?

Civilization cannot be completely separated from culture. Every technological or institutional achievement is the product of human knowledge, values and social cooperation. A machine, a system of government, a university or a transportation network has been created within a particular cultural environment.

However, a society may possess a high level of civilizational development without necessarily being regarded as culturally superior in every respect. This distinction is important. Technological advancement does not automatically produce moral development, artistic excellence or humane social relationships.

Hence, civilization should not be equated with overall cultural superiority.

Culture, Civilization and Cultural Diversity

The distinction also helps us understand why different societies may have very different cultural traditions while sharing certain civilizational features.

For instance, modern societies across the world may use similar forms of communication technology, transportation and industrial techniques. Yet their languages, religions, family patterns, customs and value systems can remain markedly different.

This shows that civilizational elements can spread across cultural boundaries without producing complete cultural uniformity.

Globalisation has made this relationship even more visible. Technologies and organisational practices may become widespread internationally, while societies continue to interpret and use them according to their own cultural values and traditions.

Criticism of the Distinction

The distinction between culture and civilization, although useful, should not be made too rigidly.

1. First, the two are interrelated. Material achievements are themselves products of human culture. Therefore, it is difficult to place every element neatly into one category.
2. Second, the distinction between means and ends is not always absolute. A technological achievement may initially be developed as a means to an end but later acquire symbolic or cultural significance in its own right.
3. Third, the idea of civilization as an “advanced” stage can become problematic if it is used to rank societies according to a single standard of development. Different societies have developed different forms of knowledge, values and social organisation.

Therefore, sociologists generally find the distinction most useful as an analytical distinction, rather than as a rigid classification of societies into “civilized” and “uncivilized”.

Conclusion

Culture and civilization are closely related but conceptually distinguishable. Culture, in the sociological sense, is the broader concept and refers to the learned and shared way of life of a society. Civilization generally refers to the development of material, technical and organisational means through which human beings organise their life and exercise control over their environment.

The distinction made by MacIver and Page is particularly useful in understanding this relationship; civilization is largely concerned with the means and instruments of human development, whereas culture is concerned more fundamentally with values, meanings, ideals and ways of life.

At the same time, civilization cannot be completely separated from culture, because technological and institutional achievements are themselves cultural products. Nor can civilizational advancement automatically be taken as evidence of cultural superiority. The two develop in interaction, and understanding their relationship is important for analysing social change, modernization and cultural transformation.