Answer the following questions in one sentence each. (10 x 1 = 10)


Q1. What do you understand by welfare state?

Ans. Welfare State refers to the state, where the government works for the social and economic well-being of the people. The state takes proactive steps to reduce inequalities and ensure access to education, healthcare, and employment.


Q2. Mention the types of Liberty.

Ans. Liberty can be categorised as:

  1. Natural Liberty,
  2. Civil Liberty,
  3. Political Liberty,
  4. Economic Liberty,
  5. National Liberty,
  6. Religious Liberty,
  7. Moral Liberty, and
  8. Individual Liberty.


Q3. Write any two merits of political party.

Ans. Two merits/advantages of political parties are as follows: -

  1. Political Parties makes the functioning of Democracy possible.
  2. Political Parties acts as link between people and the government.

 

Q4. Write the types of sovereignty.

Ans. Sovereignty can be classified as:

  1. Nominal/Real Sovereignty
  2. Legal Sovereignty
  3. Political Sovereignty
  4. Popular Sovereignty
  5. De Facto De Jure Sovereignty


Q5. What do you understand by Social Right?

Ans. Social Rights are rights that ensure people have access to essential social and economic conditions necessary for a dignified and secure life. They help promote equality, reduce poverty, and support social justice.


Examples include:

  1. Right to education
  2. Right to health care
  3. Right to housing
  4. Right to work and fair wages
  5. Right to social security
  6. Right to an adequate standard of living


Q6. What is the main concept of Post-behaviouralism?

Ans. Post-behaviouralism is an approach that emerged in the late 1960s, arguing that research should not only focus on scientific methods and data (as behaviouralists did) but also stay connected to real-world problems and moral responsibilities. In simple terms, it says political study should be both scientific and socially relevant.


Q7. Mention any two scope of Political Science

Ans. Two scopes of Political Science are:

  1. Study of the State and Government: Political Science examines the origin, nature, functions, and structure of the state and various forms of government.
  2. Study of Political Processes and Institutions: It includes the analysis of political parties, elections, public opinion, legislature, executive, judiciary, and how these institutions operate.


Q8. Define Authority.

Ans. Authority refers to the legitimate power or right to command, make decisions, and enforce obedience. Unlike mere power, which can be based on coercion or force, authority is recognized as rightful and accepted by those who are subject to it. It implies that the governed acknowledge the right of the ruler or institution to issue directives, and they comply not out of fear, but out of a sense of obligation or legitimacy.


  1. According to Allen, “Authority is the sum of powers and rights interested to make performance of work delegated.”


Q9. Mentions the types of equality.

Ans. Types of equality are:

  1. Social
  2. Civil
  3. Political
  4. Economic


Q10. What is the Legal duty?

Ans. The duties which are performed by citizens and are enforced by the law of the state or the courts are known as legal duties. Individual is legally bound to perform the legal duties. It is the legal duty of every citizen to show obedience to the Constitution, commands of law, and pay taxes regularly and honestly. It is our legal duty to remain loyal to our country and to serve and defend the country at the time of emergency.


PART – B


Answer the following questions in 4-5 lines each. Each question carries 4 marks. (4 x 4 = 16)


Q11. Explain the concept of 'Property'.

Ans. The concept of property has been central to human civilisation since early times, when individuals first claimed ownership over their tools, ornaments and other personal belongings. Property has influenced social, economic and political life, and many ideologies have developed around its meaning and purpose.


According to MacIver, early property was held mainly for use and not for power. In primitive societies, land often existed as collective property, or as a mixture of collective and private forms. Private property, especially in land, emerged much later.


Thinkers like Machiavelli and Jean Bodin highlighted the deep human attachment to private property, with Bodin calling it a natural right. John Locke, a key liberal thinker, argued that property is the fruit of one’s labour, making it both a natural and a legal right. He justified private property as an incentive to work but added restrictions—such as leaving “enough and as good” for others.


In contrast, the Marxian theory views private property as a historical creation that divides society into “haves” and “have-nots.” Marx and Engels argued that private property leads to exploitation and conflict, demanding its abolition. However, they distinguished between personal property (legitimate products of labour) and private property used for exploitation.


Thus, property is a dynamic concept shaped by social evolution and interpreted differently by liberal and Marxian traditions.


Q12. Discuss the nature of Political-Science.

Ans. Political Science has a rich and flexible nature because it deals with something as complex as human society and power. It is considered both a science and an art. It is scientific because it uses methods like observation, research, and comparison to understand political behaviour, elections, governance, and public policies. At the same time, it is an art because it involves judgement, interpretation, and understanding human values such as justice, equality, and liberty, things that cannot be measured with numbers alone.


Another important aspect of its nature is that it is both normative and empirical. This means Political Science does not only describe what is happening in politics (empirical), but also discusses what ought to happen (normative). For example, it studies how governments actually function, but also debates the best way governments should function to promote fairness and welfare.


Political Science is also interdisciplinary, meaning it overlaps with many other subjects. It uses history to understand political events, economics to see how resources shape power, sociology to study society’s influence on politics, and psychology to understand political behaviour. This makes the subject broad and holistic.


In essence, the nature of Political Science is practical, analytical, and value-oriented. It helps us understand political systems, encourages informed citizenship, and guides us in thinking about how societies can be organized in a more just and effective way.


Q13. Explain types of Democracy.

Ans. Democracy is broadly categorized based on how the will of the people is expressed and how the government functions. The main kinds are:


1. Direct Democracy

  1. Definition: In direct democracy, the people directly participate in decision-making and law-making without intermediaries.
  2. Features:
  3. Citizens vote on every major issue or policy.
  4. Suitable for small societies or communities.
  5. Examples: Ancient Athens; modern use in referendums and initiatives (e.g., Switzerland).


2. Indirect (Representative) Democracy

  1. Definition: In indirect democracy, people elect representatives who make decisions and pass laws on their behalf.
  2. Features:
  3. More practical for large, complex societies.
  4. Ensures accountability through regular elections.
  5. Examples: India, United States, United Kingdom.


3. Parliamentary Democracy

  1. Definition: A form of representative democracy where the executive (government) is drawn from and accountable to the legislature (parliament).
  2. Features:
  3. Prime Minister is the head of government.
  4. Close relationship between legislative and executive branches.
  5. Example: India, United Kingdom.


4. Presidential Democracy

  1. Definition: A system where the executive is separate from the legislature and elected independently.
  2. Features:
  3. President is both head of state and government.
  4. Clear separation of powers.
  5. Example: United States, Brazil.


5. Constitutional Democracy

  1. Definition: A form of democracy governed by a constitution that limits the powers of government and protects individual rights.
  2. Features:
  3. Rule of law and fundamental rights are upheld.
  4. Courts can review laws and actions of the government.
  5. Example: India, Germany.


Conclusion:

Different kinds of democracy reflect the diverse ways in which political power can be structured and exercised while upholding the core principle of popular sovereignty. Understanding these forms is crucial for analysing governance models in constitutional democracies like India.


Q14. Explain types of Legitimacy.

Ans. David Easton describes three types of legitimacy as under:


(a) Ideological legitimacy:

When the source of legitimacy is the ideology prevailing in the society, it is termed as ideological legitimacy. A political system is in fact an articulated set of ideals, ends and purposes which help the members to interpret the past explain the present and provide a vision for the future. The ideology portrays the aims and states the objectives of the political system. These aims and objectives have the potential as they constitute a set of ethically infused ideals to capture the imagination of the people. They inspire men to action as they are related to their success.


(b) Structural legitimacy:

The principles which lead the members in a particular system to accept as legitimate, contribute to the validation of structures and norms of the regime. Every system has set goals according to which authority is exercised and political power is wielded. This basis of validation is termed as structural legitimacy.


(c) Personal legitimacy:

If the behaviour and personality of those at the help of affairs is of dominating importance and if the members, consider these authorities as trust-worthy this is known as personal legitimacy. David Easton is of the view that a large class of leaders, regardless of any inner conviction of being called, or outer recognition as such by followers, manage to build up a belief in their legitimacy.


PART – C


Answer the following questions in 400 words each. Attempt any three. Each question carries 8 marks. (3 x 8 = 24)


Q15. Discuss the features of Behaviouralism by David Easton.

Ans. David Easton played a central role in shaping the Behavioural Revolution in Political Science. He identified eight intellectual foundation stones that define Behaviouralism. These features aimed to make the study of politics more scientific, evidence-based and closely connected to real human behaviour.


1. Regularities: Easton argued that political behaviour follows observable and recurring patterns. By studying these regularities, political scientists can understand how individuals and groups are likely to act. This shifted political study from institutions to actual behaviour, making analysis more realistic and predictive.


2. Verification: Behaviouralism demands that all political conclusions must be tested and verified. Researchers cannot rely on assumptions or philosophical reasoning alone. Evidence collected through observation, data and experiments must support every claim. This improves the reliability of political research.


3. Use of Techniques: Behaviouralism introduced modern scientific tools into Political Science. Techniques such as surveys, interviews, sampling, statistical analysis and content analysis help collect accurate data on political attitudes and behaviour. These tools made research more systematic and dependable.


4. Quantification: Easton stressed the importance of expressing political findings in numerical terms wherever possible. Quantification allows researchers to measure behaviour, compare results, and identify trends. Using statistics gives political studies more clarity and precision.


5. Value-Free Research: A key feature of Behaviouralism is the insistence that research must remain free from personal biases. Political scientists should not let their moral values; ideological preferences or emotions influence their findings. Maintaining neutrality helps Political Science develop as an objective discipline.


6. Systematization: Behaviouralism emphasises that research must follow organised and well-designed procedures. A systematic approach means defining concepts clearly, forming hypotheses, collecting data methodically, and analysing results carefully. This scientific structure ensures consistency and accuracy.


7. Pure Science Orientation: Easton believed that Political Science should aim to be a pure science, focused on discovering and explaining facts rather than prescribing what ought to be. The purpose is to understand political behaviour as it actually occurs, similar to how natural sciences study physical phenomena.


8. Integration: Behaviouralism encourages the use of knowledge from other social sciences—such as psychology to study attitudes, sociology to understand group behaviour, and economics to explain decision-making. This interdisciplinary integration creates a richer and more holistic understanding of politics.


Conclusion

Together, these eight features transformed Political Science into a more scientific, empirical and behaviour-oriented discipline. Easton’s framework helped the subject move beyond the study of institutions toward a deeper understanding of how people actually behave in political settings.


Q16. Define State. Explain function of state.

Ans. State is the highest institution among all institutions. The Greek used the word “Polis”, which corresponds most nearly to the English term “State”. The Greeks used the word “Polis” for “City States”. The Romans used the word “Civitas”, which also mean the same. The Teutons employed the term “Status”, which was used as State. The modern term “State” was derived from the word “Status”.

It was Machiavelli, who first used the word State in Political Science.


  1. Aristotle defined State as, “a union of families and religions having for its end a perfect and self-sufficing life, by which we mean a happy and honourable life.”


  1. Bodin defined State as, “an association of families and their common professions governed by supreme power and by reason.”


Most political thinkers agree that a state must have four essential elements:

  1. Population – a group of people living together,
  2. Territory – a definite geographical area,
  3. Government – the machinery through which laws are made and enforced,
  4. Sovereignty – the supreme authority of the state, free from external control.


In simple terms, the state is the highest political institution that organises society and ensures peace, security, and collective welfare.


Functions of the State

The functions of the state have evolved over time, from minimal roles in early liberal thought to more comprehensive responsibilities in the modern welfare era. Its key functions include:


1. Maintaining Law and Order

The foremost responsibility of the state is to ensure internal peace. It establishes laws, enforces them through police and courts, and protects citizens from crime, violence, and disorder. Without order, no other function can be performed effectively.


2. Defence and Protection from External Threats

The state protects its territory and people from foreign aggression. It maintains armed forces, conducts diplomacy, and builds alliances to safeguard national security. Defence is essential for the survival of the state.


3. Administration of Justice

An important function of the state is to provide an impartial system of justice. Courts settle disputes, interpret laws, and protect the rights and liberties of individuals. This ensures fairness, equality, and social stability.


4. Regulation of Economy

Modern states play a major role in economic life. They regulate trade, control inflation, encourage investment, and ensure fair practices in markets. States may also manage key industries and protect consumers from exploitation.


5. Social Welfare and Development

Today, the state is expected to improve the quality of life of its citizens. It provides education, healthcare, social security, employment support, and programmes for vulnerable sections. The idea is not only to maintain order but also to promote human well-being.


6. Protection of Rights and Liberties

A democratic state safeguards the fundamental rights of individuals—such as freedom of speech, equality, and the right to life. It creates legal and institutional mechanisms to prevent discrimination and injustice.


7. Infrastructure and Public Services

The state develops and maintains essential services like transportation, communication, electricity, water supply, and sanitation. These are necessary for economic growth and social progress.


8. Environmental Protection

In modern times, states are responsible for protecting natural resources, managing pollution, promoting sustainable development, and responding to climate change. This ensures that future generations also enjoy a healthy environment.


Conclusion

The state is the central institution that holds society together. While its earliest role was simply to provide security, its modern functions have expanded to include social welfare, economic regulation, and protection of rights. A strong and responsible state is therefore essential for peace, justice, and overall human development.


Q17. Explain Liberal and Marxian theory of Property.

Ans. The concept of property has been central to political, social, and economic thought. Different thinkers have interpreted property in different ways, leading to two influential theories: The Liberal theory of property and the Marxian theory of property.


1. Liberal Theory of Property

The Liberal theory views property as a natural and essential right of individuals. Its main ideas are:


  1. Property as a Reward of Labour: Liberal thinkers, especially John Locke, argued that property is the result of one’s effort and labour. If a person mixes their labour with natural resources, they earn the right to own and use it.


  1. Natural and Legal Right: Property is both a natural right, inherent to human beings, and a legal right, protected by the state. Locke believed that the state exists, among other things, to safeguard property.


  1. Incentive for Hard Work: Private property motivates individuals to work, innovate, and accumulate wealth. It encourages economic activity and personal responsibility.


  1. Restrictions:
  2. Even within liberalism, property rights are not absolute. Locke proposed that individuals must leave “enough and as good” for others and only claim what they have created or improved through their labour.


  1. Supporters:
  2. Other liberal thinkers such as Adam Smith, JS Mill, and T.H. Green reinforced the idea that property fosters freedom, individuality, and economic development.


In short, the liberal theory treats property as a legitimate, natural reward that benefits both the individual and society.


2. Marxian Theory of Property

The Marxian theory, proposed by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, offers a sharp contrast to liberal ideas. Its main features are:


  1. Private Property as Historical and Divisive: Marx argued that private property is not eternal; it emerged at a certain stage of social development. It divides society into the “Haves” (owners) and the “Have-Nots” (workers), creating inequality and exploitation.


  1. Source of Conflict: Private property is seen as a tool of domination. It allows one class to control the wealth and labour of others, making social cooperation difficult.


  1. Distinction Between Personal and Private Property: Marx did not oppose personal property—items genuinely produced or earned by an individual, like clothes or tools. He opposed private property used to exploit others, especially land and capital.


  1. Call for Abolition: Unlike liberalism, Marxism advocates the abolition of private property in production. This is seen as essential for achieving social equality and the self-realisation of human beings.


  1. Emphasis on Collective Ownership: Marxian theory supports collective or state ownership of resources and means of production to ensure that wealth benefits the whole society rather than a few individuals.


In essence, while liberalism celebrates private property as natural and beneficial, Marxism critiques it as exploitative and divisive, calling for its replacement with a system of collective ownership.


Conclusion

The Liberal and Marxian theories of property represent two contrasting views. Liberalism focuses on individual rights, labour, and incentives, while Marxism emphasises equality, collective welfare, and the elimination of exploitation. Together, these theories have shaped debates on property, wealth, and social justice throughout history.


Q18. What is the Universal Declaration of Human Right, and why was it adopted by the United Nations?

Ans. Human beings are born equal in dignity and rights. These are moral claims which are inalienable and inherent in all individuals by virtue of their humanity alone, irrespective of any difference or any other consideration. These claims are articulated and formulated and what is today known as Human Rights.


Durga Das Basu defines that human rights are those minimal rights which every individual must have against the State or other public authority by virtue of his being a member of human family irrespective any consideration.


The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 1948, defines Human Rights as rights derived from the inherent dignity of the human being.


It was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on December 10, 1948, in the aftermath of World War II, as a response to the atrocities committed during the war.


Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights states that, “all human beings are born equal in dignity and rights.”


The UDHR contains a Preamble and 30 Articles covering civil, political, economic, social, and cultural rights, all of which are considered universal, indivisible, and interdependent.


The 30 articles under UDHR are as follows: -


1. Article 1 - All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.


2. Article 2 - Freedom from Discrimination. Everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms in the Declaration without distinction of any kind, such as race, colour, sex, language, religion, political opinion, national or social origin, property, birth, or other status.


3. Article 3 - Right to Life, Liberty, and Security of person.


4. Article 4 - Freedom from Slavery. No one shall be held in slavery or servitude.


5. Article 5 - Freedom from Torture or cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment or punishment.


6. Article 6 - Right to Recognition as a Person before the Law everywhere.


7. Article 7 - Equality before the Law and entitlement to equal protection of the law.


8. Article 8 - Right to an Effective Remedy by competent national tribunals for acts violating fundamental rights.


9. Article 9 - Freedom from Arbitrary Arrest, Detention, or Exile.


10. Article 10 - Right to a Fair Public Hearing by an independent and impartial tribunal if charged with a penal offence or in determination of rights and obligations.


11. Article 11 - Right to be Presumed Innocent until proved guilty according to law in a public trial with necessary guarantees for defence.


12. Article 12 - Freedom from Interference with privacy, family, home, or correspondence, and attacks upon honour or reputation.


13. Article 13 - Right to Freedom of Movement and residence within the borders of each state, and the right to leave any country and return to one's own country.


14. Article 14 - Right to Seek and to Enjoy Asylum from persecution in other countries.


15. Article 15 - Right to a Nationality and the right not to be arbitrarily deprived of nationality or denied the right to change it.


16. Article 16 - Right to Marriage and Family. Men and women have the right to marry and found a family, with full and free consent, and the family is entitled to protection.


17. Article 17 - Right to Own Property and not to be arbitrarily deprived of it.


18. Article 18 - Freedom of Thought, Conscience, and Religion (including the freedom to change one's religion or belief).


19. Article 19 - Freedom of Opinion and Expression (including the freedom to hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive and impart information and ideas).


20. Article 20 - Freedom of Peaceful Assembly and Association.


21. Article 21 - Right to Participate in Government directly or through freely chosen representatives, based on periodic and genuine elections by universal and equal suffrage.


22. Article 22 - Right to Social Security and the realization of economic, social, and cultural rights indispensable for dignity and free development.


23. Article 23 - Right to Work, to free choice of employment, to just and favourable conditions of work, to equal pay for equal work, and the right to form and join trade unions.


24. Article 24 - Right to Rest and Leisure, including reasonable limitation of working hours and periodic holidays with pay.


25. Article 25 - Right to an Adequate Standard of Living (including food, clothing, housing, medical care, and social services) and security in the event of unemployment, sickness, disability, widowhood, old age or other lack of livelihood.


26. Article 26 - Right to Education (free at least in the elementary stages, compulsory elementary education, equal access to higher education based on merit), directed to the full development of the human personality.


27. Article 27 - Right to Participate in Cultural Life, to enjoy the arts, and to share in scientific advancement and its benefits. Right to protection of moral and material interests resulting from authorship.


28. Article 28 - Right to a Social and International Order in which the rights and freedoms in the Declaration can be fully realized.


29. Article 29 - Duties and Limitations. Everyone has duties to the community. Rights are subject to limitations determined by law solely for securing due recognition and respect for the rights of others and meeting the just requirements of morality, public order, and general welfare.


30. Article 30 - Freedom from State or Personal Interference in Rights. Nothing in the Declaration may be interpreted as implying any right for any State, group, or person to engage in any activity aimed at the destruction of any of the rights and freedoms set forth herein.