2022


Time: 3 Hours                                              

Max Marks: 50


PART – A


Answer the following questions in one sentence each. (10 x 1 = 10)


Q1. State two reasons for the origin of Post-Behaviouralism.

Ans. Two reasons for the origin of Post-Behaviouralism are:


1. Failure of Behaviouralists in converting Political Science in a Natural Science – Behaviouralism’s core goal was to transform political science into a "natural science" by using quantitative methods and focusing on observable behaviour. However, its strict adherence to this model often resulted in a limited understanding of political phenomena. Post-Behaviouralists argued that the complexities of human behaviour and political systems couldn't be fully captured by a methodology borrowed from the natural sciences. The subjective nature of human values, intentions, and political contexts couldn't be ignored in favour of purely objective data.


2. Failure of Behaviouralists in establishing regular norms regarding human behaviour – Behaviouralism aimed to discover universal laws of human behaviour through empirical research. The hope was to create a predictive science of politics, much like physics or chemistry. However, post-Behaviouralists pointed out that human behaviour is dynamic and context-dependent, making it impossible to establish stable, predictable "laws." The insights gained from behavioural studies often failed to hold true across different cultures, time periods, or political situations.


Q2. Point out the fundamental rights mentioned in the Constitution of India.

Ans. Fundamental Rights which have been included in the Constitution are as follows: -

  1. Right to Equality
  2. Right to Freedom
  3. Right against Exploitation
  4. Right to Religious Freedom
  5. Cultural and Educational Rights
  6. Right to Constitutional Remedies


Q3. What do you understand by moral liberty?

Ans. Moral liberty creates such conditions which enable an individual to become a rational being as a result of which he becomes able to distinguish between right and wrong, true and false, moral and immoral, religious and irreligious etc. The individual, therefore should be morally free and the state should create such conditions necessary to ensure moral liberty to man.

T.H. Green, Rousseau, Kant, Hegel and Bosanquet are in the favour of moral liberty.


Q4. Write any four characteristics of Human Rights.

Ans. Four characteristics of Human Rights are as follows:


1. Universality: Human rights belong to all people everywhere, regardless of nationality, race, gender, religion, or any other status.


2. Inalienability: Human rights cannot be taken away or surrendered, except in specific lawful situations (e.g., restriction of freedom after a fair trial).


3. Indivisibility and Interdependence: All human rights, civil, political, economic, social, and cultural, are equally important and depend on one another.


4. Equality and Non-discrimination: Every individual is entitled to human rights on an equal basis without discrimination of any kind.


Q5. State any two limitations on sovereignty.

Ans. Two limitations on sovereignty are:


1. Constitutional Limitations – In constitutional democracies, sovereignty is limited by the Constitution. Government actions must conform to constitutional provisions, such as fundamental rights. In India, the Constitution is supreme, the Parliament cannot pass laws that violate the Constitution (Basic Structure Doctrine).


2. Rule of Law – The rule of law places restrictions on arbitrary use of power. Sovereign powers must operate within the framework of established laws and judicial review.


Q6. Mention any three sources of power.

Ans. Three sources of power are as follows:

  1. Legal-Rational Authority
  2. Traditional Authority
  3. Charismatic Authority


Q7. Write any two features of modern perspective of Political Science.

Ans. The two main features of the modern perspective of Political Science are the study of power dynamics and the adoption of behavioural analysis.

  1. Focus on Power: This perspective shifts the focus from the formal structures of government and law to the practical realities of how power is exercised, distributed, and influenced in society. It examines the interactions between various state and non-state actors in the political sphere.
  2. Behavioural Approach: The modern perspective applies scientific methods and empirical observation to understand and explain human political behaviour. This involves analysing the actions, attitudes, and motivations of individuals and groups within the political system.


Q8. What are the four elements of the state?

Ans. Modern State is constituted of four elements:

  1. Population – a group of people living together,
  2. Territory – a definite geographical area,
  3. Government – the machinery through which laws are made and enforced,
  4. Sovereignty – the supreme authority of the state, free from external control.


Q9. Write any two differences between state and the government.

Ans. Two differences between State and the Government are:


1. Government is the Agent of the State – Government is an organisation or machinery through which the state benefits itself. Woodrow Wilson has remarked that the state is juristically organised in its government and can only speak through the government. It is also said that the government is the agency or machinery through which the collective will of the people of the State is formulated, expressed and executed.

Thus, the Government serves as an agent who carry the purpose of the State.


2. Government is Only Part of the State – Government is only one of the four basic elements which constitute a State. It is an important constituent because State cannot function without Government. It is the Government that carries out the purpose of the State and maintain law and order in society.


Q10. Write any two merits of multi-party system.

Ans. Two merits of multiparty system are:

  1. The nation is not divided into two camps.
  2. Parliament does not become a puppet in the hands of the cabinet.


PART – B


Answer the following questions in 4-5 lines each. Each question carries 4 marks. (4 x 4 = 16)


Q11. Explain the concept of 'Duties'.

Ans. The society calls upon the individuals to follow certain norms. These are obligations or duties. Gandhi Ji advocated for both rights and duties. If an individual has a right to life, it is also his duty that he should not take life of another.


Classification of Duties:

  1. Moral Duties
  2. Legal Duties
  3. Fundamental Duties


1. Moral Duties – Moral duties are based on accepted moral assumptions of the society and to obey them is good for the individual and the society. To respect the elders, to love the younger ones, to serve the parents, to help the deprived section of the society, and to behave in a decent manner with others etc. are the moral duties of an individual.


But if one doesn’t perform the moral duties, he or he cannot be compelled to do so because there is no legal sanction behind the oral duties. To perform or not to perform moral duties depends upon the will of an individual.


2. Legal Duties – The duties which are performed by citizens and are enforced by the law of the state or the courts are known as legal duties. Individual is legally bound to perform the legal duties. It is the legal duty of every citizen to show obedience to the Constitution, commands of law, and pay taxes regularly and honestly. It is our legal duty to remain loyal to our country and to serve and defend the country at the time of emergency.


3. Fundamental Duties – Duties which are included in the Constitution, which is the highest law of the country, are known as fundamental duties.


Fundamental Duties have been added in India according to Constitution (42nd Amendment) Act, 1976. All the fundamental duties have been mentioned in Part 4A, Article 51A of the Constitution of India.


Following are the Fundamental Duties: -


a. To abide by the Constitution and respect its ideals and institutions, the National Flag and the National Anthem.


b. To cherish and follow the noble ideals of which inspired national struggle for freedom.


c. To uphold and protect sovereignty, unity, and integrity of India.


d. To defend the country and perform national services as and when the country requires.


e. To promote the spirit of harmony and brotherhood and to renounce any practices derogatory to the dignity of women.


f. To cherish and preserve the rich heritage of the country’s composite culture.


g. To protect and improve the natural environment including lakes, wildlife, rivers, forests etc.


h. To develop scientific temper, humanism, and spirit of inquiry and reform.


i. To safeguard all public property.


j. To strive towards excellence in all spheres of individual and collective activity.


k. To provide opportunities for education to children between the age of 4 and 16 years, and duty as parents to ensure that such opportunities are being awarded to their child.


Q12. Discuss attributes of Sovereignty.

Ans. Sovereignty describes the supreme and independent authority of the State. Although its meaning has evolved over time, certain core attributes continue to define how sovereignty operates. These attributes help us understand why the State is considered the highest political organisation in society.

Some attributes of sovereignty are as follows:


1. Supremacy

The first key attribute of sovereignty is its supreme nature. Within its territory, the State has the highest and final authority. No individual, institution, or group can legally challenge or override the decisions of a sovereign State. This supremacy ensures order and prevents competing centres of power from destabilising governance. For example, even powerful actors like corporations or religious bodies operate under the laws of the State.


2. Absoluteness

Traditionally, sovereignty was viewed as absolute, meaning it was not subject to any external or internal limitations. Thinkers like Bodin and Hobbes argued that the State must have undivided authority to maintain peace. However, in modern democracies this absoluteness is moderated by constitutional checks, judicial review, and international norms. Still, the idea remains that the State exercises ultimate legal power within its jurisdiction.


3. Universality

Sovereignty applies to all individuals and organisations within the State. No one is exempt from its laws unless specifically granted immunity through constitutional or legal provisions. This universality reinforces equality before the law and strengthens the legitimacy of the State’s authority.


4. Indivisibility

An important attribute is that sovereignty cannot be divided. A State cannot have two separate supreme authorities at the same time. Even in federal systems, where powers are shared between central and regional governments, sovereignty ultimately rests with the constitution or the people as a single source. Indivisibility ensures coherence in the exercise of power.


5. Permanence

Sovereignty is more enduring than any temporary government. Governments may change through elections, revolutions, or reforms, but sovereignty continues as long as the State itself exists. This permanence gives political systems stability and continuity across generations.


Q13. Discuss safeguards of liberty.

Ans. Following safeguards are necessary for the protection of Liberty:


1. Eternal Vigilance – Vigilance among people is very necessary for the protection of liberty. Men should be aware of their liberty, rights and duties. If they are not aware of their responsibilities towards liberty, they will lose their liberty.


2. Democratic Government – For the development of liberty, democratic government provides an appropriate atmosphere. Democratic government is of the people and is responsible to the people. Government can be changed according to time and man has liberty to express his thoughts and views and to criticize the government. People do not let the government to limit the liberty of people.


3. Co-operation between the People and the Government – Government can protect liberty only when the people give proper co-operation to the Government. If the people do not obey the laws and do not help in apprehending the culprits, government cannot protect the liberty. The people should strongly oppose any attack on their liberty and they should support the government to suppress such elements.


4. Fundamental Rights – Fundamental Rights should be included in the constitution and there should be arrangement for the protection of those Fundamental Rights. Fundamental Rights act as a shield for the protection of freedom and create proper conditions for the enjoyment of liberty. According to some scholars, rights and liberty are the two sides of the same coin and in the absence of rights, there is no place of liberty.


5. Separation of Powers – The powers of the government should be separated among executive, legislature and the judiciary. This will help in preventing any organ of the government to become absolute. Every organ of the government will operate in its own framework.


According to Montesquieu, “separation of powers is an essential condition for the enjoyment of liberty and the countries where there is separation of powers the people enjoy more liberty.”


6. Independent Judiciary – Independent, powerful and impartial judiciary is the biggest protector of liberty. Whenever any individual, organization or government violates the liberty of an individual he/ she can knock at the door of the judiciary and where there are no such provisions, the liberty becomes just a mockery.


Q14. Discuss the meaning and definition of equality.

Ans. By equality it is meant that all men are equal and should be entitled to equality of treatment and income. Men are born free and always continue to live free and equal in respect of their rights. It is believed that it is self-evident that all men are created equal. In practical life, it is not true. No two men are similar in physical constitution, capacity, and temperament.


Professor Laski has remarked in this connection, “Equality does not mean the identity of treatment or the sameness of reward. If a mason gets the same reward as a mathematician or scientist, then the purpose of the society will be defeated.”


Equality therefore means, first of all the absence of social privileges. Secondly, it means that adequate opportunities are laid upon to all. The ideals of equality have insisted that men are politically equal, that all citizens are equally entitled to take part in the political life to exercise the franchise, to run for an own / hold office.


It has insisted that individuals should be equal before the law and the rights and duties shall extend to all. This means that no one shall confer special privilege or special treatment.


Dimensions:

There are four dimensions/kinds of equality: -


1. Social Equality – Social Equality means that all the citizens are entitled to enjoy equal status in the society and no one is entitled to special privileges. There should not be any distinction of caste, creed, colour and race, groups and classes, clans and tribes. All should have an equal opportunity to develop their personality. Untouchability has been abolished and its practice has been forbidden.


2. Civil Equality – Civil laws should treat all the individuals equally. There should not be any discrimination of superior and inferior, rich and poor, etc. In the eyes of Rule of Law, all are equal.


3. Political Equality – It means equal access of the people to the avenues of political authority. All citizens must possess similar political rights; they should have similar voice in the working of the government and they should have equal opportunities to participate in political affairs of the country. Universal Adult Franchise is a means to this end.


4. Economic Equality – It is closely related to political equality. Professor Laski also emphasises on association of economic equality with political equality. It refers to the idea that all individuals in a society should have similar levels of income, wealth, and access to basic resources like education, healthcare, and housing. It's often linked to the political goal of social justice and ensuring that economic disparities don't lead to unequal political power.


PART – C


Answer the following questions in 400 words each. Attempt any three. Each question carries 8 marks. (3 x 8 = 24)


Q15. Discuss the features of post-behaviouralism as discussed by David Easton.

Ans. David Easton who had at one stage enumerated 8 characteristics of Behaviouralism and called them intellectual foundation stones of the movement, now came out with 7 major characteristics of Post-Behaviouralism.

He describes these as the credo of relevance.


1. Substance is Important than Technique.

Substance must come before any consideration of tools and techniques. Foremost attention should be paid to the choice of purposeful, relevant and meaningful problems of the society. It is better to be vague than non-relevant, or precise.


2. Emphasis upon Social Change.

Social change, and not preservation of the status quo, should be its motto. Previously, Behaviouralism mostly confined itself to description and analysis of facts, and overlooked broader social context. As such, in many cases, they could not understand the contextual meaning of facts.


3. To Find Out Reliable Solutions of Contemporary Problems and Face Reality.

Scholars should take up social conflicts, deepening fears, and worries about the future as their subjects of study, and try to find out their solutions. They have to face hard realities of politics, and not to run away from them.


4. Values are Part and Parcel of the Study of Politics.

Unlike the past, values should be given a central place and made the basis of choice of problems, research, and evaluation. Scientism, value-neutrality, sophistication, etc., has to be given up. They merely transform the scholars into technicians of Political Science.


5. Major Role of Intellectuals in Protection of Human Values.

The main task of scholars was now to protect and defend human values and seek welfare of the whole world. Failing which they degrade themselves merely to mechanics, technicians and propellers of the mechanical structure of the present society. They should rise above bare Behaviouralism, and labour to defend human values.


6. Political Science is both an Action Science and Contemplative Science.

To know is to bear the responsibility for acting and to act is to engage in reshaping society. In place of sheer contemplation, the scholars must come forward with action to actualise the contents of their knowledge.


7. Politicisation of the Profession is Inescapable and Desirable.

It pleads for the politicisation of the professions. In other words, the intellectuals must discover proper goals for the society and make it move to realise them. They have a positive role to play, and organise themselves to undertake the tasks.


Thus, Post-Behaviouralism intends to transform the academic, professional and valuational contents of Political Science. The latter has to cater both to the social as well as academic needs of society.


Q16. Describe the elements of the state and how state is different from government.

Ans. State is the highest institution among all institutions. It was Machiavelli, who first used the word State in Political Science.


  1. Aristotle defined State as, “a union of families and religions having for its end a perfect and self-sufficing life, by which we mean a happy and honourable life.”


  1. Bodin defined State as, “an association of families and their common professions governed by supreme power and by reason.”


Elements of the State:

Modern State is constituted of 4 elements: -


1. Population –

  1. State is the highest of all human associations.


  1. It is a human institution and there can be no State without human beings. A population of some kind is necessary for the existence of the State.


  1. No State can exist in an inhabited land, nor can a definite piece of land without human habitation is called a State.


  1. A State being a human institution can never exist without human beings, nor can living beings other than humans constitute a State.


2. Territory –

  1. It covers the surface of land with well-demarcated boundaries from the soil, lakes, rivers, and also air space above the land.


  1. According to Bluntschli, “as the State has its personal basis on its land so it has its material basis in land. The people do not become State until they have acquired territory. Territory is one of the basic requirements of the State whereas human activities don’t indispensably require territory. The co-existence of two or more states on the same territory could lead to continuous state of war or conflicts.”


3. Government –

  1. Government is also an indispensable element of the state because no state can exist in the absence of Government.


  1. A group of people permanently settled in a fixed territory cannot constitute a State in the absence of Government.


  1. Government is the political organisation through which collective will of the people is formulated, expressed and executed.


  1. The State operates through governmental machinery. Government is the agency through which society is politically organised, common policies are determined and by which common affairs are regulated and common interest are promoted in the absence of a government.


  1. A group of people permanently settled in a fixed territory would be incoherent, unorganised and an anarchic mass with no means of collective action.


  1. No particular type of government is essential, it may vary in kind and complexity.


  1. If two governments are formed in a country, the country is divided into two states.


  1. In the absence of government, no state can afford to exist.


4. Sovereignty –

  1. It is regarded as life and soul of the state. There can be no State in the absence of Sovereignty.


  1. The word Sovereignty has been derived from the Latin Term “Supranus”, which mean “Supreme”.


  1. It is Sovereignty that differentiates the State from all other social organisations.


  1. State is the only human institution that has all the essential elements including Sovereignty.


  1. The sovereignty of the State is expressed through the government which is supreme in internal and external matters.


Distinction between State and the Government:

The term government and state at times are used interchangeably. The stewards of England didn’t differentiate between State and Government. They did so to justify their absolute authority. It was John Locke in the 19th Century, who first differentiated between the State and the Government.


There are many differences between the State and the Government which established that the Government cannot attain the status of statehood:


1. Government is the Agent of the State – Government is an organisation or machinery through which the state benefits itself. Woodrow Wilson has remarked that the state is juristically organised in its government and can only speak through the government. It is also said that the government is the agency or machinery through which the collective will of the people of the State is formulated, expressed and executed.

Thus, the Government serves as an agent who carry the purpose of the State.


2. Government is Only Part of the State – Government is only one of the four basic elements which constitute a State. It is an important constituent because State cannot function without Government. It is the Government that carries out the purpose of the State and maintain law and order in society.


3. State possess Sovereignty, but Government doesn’t – There can be no State without Sovereignty. A State claims the status of Statehood once it attains Sovereignty. The Government does not attain sovereignty because in democracy, state sovereignty is transferred to public and people are regarded as the source of power.


4. Government changes frequently but the State remains more or less Permanent – Government changes frequently or can collapse due to certain reasons and other political party might get a chance to form their own government.


5. State is Uniform throughout but the Governments are of many kind – Government is of many types such as parliamentary, presidential, communist, monarchical, military rule etc. but the State is uniform whatever kind of government is created within the State.


6. Membership of the State is compulsory but not of the Government – Every person by virtue of his birth or his blood relation is member of the state but it entirely depends upon the will of the people to become a member of the government or not.


7. Territory is an Essential Characteristic of the State but not of the Government – Fixed territory is an essential element of the state but not of the government. No state can exist without a territory but a government can function without territory also. At times, the government of the state is established in some other state and still can function when re-established in its own state.


8. State is Abstract but Government is Concrete – State is not concrete and does not have any practical concern. So far as government is concerned, it is practical. It has its own concrete establishment. It carries out the purpose of the state to its various department and agencies.

According to Laski, “State is nothing but Government, and assumes complete reality in the Government only.”


9. People can Oppose the Government but not the State – People cannot afford to oppose the State because they have no right to do so. Government is servant of the State and if it goes against collective will of the people, then people can oppose the Government.


10. The State includes the whole Population but the Government includes only a few people – The whole population of the state forms an essential component of the state but the government includes only those people who actively participate in the functioning of the government.


Q17. Discuss the concept and features of democracy.

Ans. The word Democracy is derived from two Greek words, “Demos” (People) and “Kratos” (Power). Thus, Democracy means “Power of the People”.


According to Seeley, “Democracy is a government in which everyone has a share.”


Features/Advantages:

Various features/advantages of Democracy are as follows: -


1. A Good Written Constitution – A written constitution is the backbone of a democratic system. It provides the legal framework for the functioning of the government and outlines the division of powers, citizens' rights, and the limits of authority.


The constitution is seen as the supreme law of the land, ensuring both governance and accountability. A good constitution ensures clarity, consistency, and continuity, allowing institutions to function without arbitrary interference.


Example: India’s Constitution, the longest written constitution in the world, ensures a federal structure with a strong central government, fundamental rights, and directive principles.


2. Independent, Impartial and Periodical Elections – Regular, free, and fair elections are a cornerstone of democracy. They enable citizens to choose their representatives and hold them accountable. Independence of the Election Commission and use of technology (like EVMs and VVPATs in India) ensure transparency and impartiality. Periodic elections ensure that power is not concentrated indefinitely in the hands of one group or party, preventing autocracy.


3. Fundamental Rights – Democracies guarantee certain basic rights to all citizens, such as freedom of speech, religion, equality, and protection against discrimination. These rights are essential to ensure individual liberty and human dignity. Fundamental rights are viewed as inviolable guarantees that protect minorities and marginalized groups.


Example: Part III of the Indian Constitution provides for Fundamental Rights which are justiciable, i.e., enforceable by courts.


4. Independence of Judiciary – A strong and independent judiciary is essential for upholding the rule of law and safeguarding the Constitution. The judiciary acts as the guardian of the Constitution and the protector of Fundamental Rights. It ensures checks and balances among the organs of government—Legislature, Executive, and Judiciary. The doctrine of separation of powers is key to ensuring judicial independence.


5. Welfare State – Democracy is closely linked with the idea of a welfare state, where the government works for the social and economic well-being of the people. The state takes proactive steps to reduce inequalities and ensure access to education, healthcare, and employment.


Example: The Directive Principles of State Policy (Part IV of the Indian Constitution) provide guidance for achieving a welfare state.


6. Effective Opposition – A healthy democracy encourages a strong and constructive opposition that can critique government policies and offer alternative solutions. Opposition is vital for accountability, transparency, and preventing majoritarianism. An effective opposition enhances debate, ensures diverse representation, and prevents the abuse of power. Parliamentary systems (like India) recognize the Leader of the Opposition with official status and roles.


7. Political Parties Are Crucial – Political parties are essential for the functioning of representative democracy. They help in mobilizing public opinion, forming governments, and linking the people with the political system. Parties provide candidates, create policy platforms, and facilitate political participation. Parties are studied as intermediary institutions between the state and civil society. A multi-party system, as in India, ensures pluralism and representation of diverse interests.


8. People are the Ultimate Source of Sovereignty – In a democracy, sovereignty lies with the people, and all authority flows from the collective will of the citizens. This concept is rooted in the theory of popular sovereignty (e.g., Rousseau, Locke).


Example: The Preamble to the Indian Constitution begins with "We, the People of India...", emphasizing this principle.


9. Free Press and Media – An independent press is vital to a democratic society. It acts as a watchdog, ensures informed citizenry, and facilitates public discourse. Media is seen as the fourth pillar of democracy, alongside Legislature, Executive, and Judiciary. Free press exposes corruption, educates the public, and provides a platform for multiple voices. In modern democracies, both traditional media and digital platforms play key roles in political participation and transparency.


Each of these features ensures that democracy is not just a form of government, but a system that promotes liberty, equality, and justice.


Kinds of Democracy:

Democracy is broadly categorized based on how the will of the people is expressed and how the government functions. The main kinds are:


1. Direct Democracy

  1. Definition: In direct democracy, the people directly participate in decision-making and law-making without intermediaries.
  2. Features:
  3. Citizens vote on every major issue or policy.
  4. Suitable for small societies or communities.
  5. Examples: Ancient Athens; modern use in referendums and initiatives (e.g., Switzerland).


2. Indirect (Representative) Democracy

  1. Definition: In indirect democracy, people elect representatives who make decisions and pass laws on their behalf.
  2. Features:
  3. More practical for large, complex societies.
  4. Ensures accountability through regular elections.
  5. Examples: India, United States, United Kingdom.


3. Parliamentary Democracy

  1. Definition: A form of representative democracy where the executive (government) is drawn from and accountable to the legislature (parliament).
  2. Features:
  3. Prime Minister is the head of government.
  4. Close relationship between legislative and executive branches.
  5. Example: India, United Kingdom.


4. Presidential Democracy

  1. Definition: A system where the executive is separate from the legislature and elected independently.
  2. Features:
  3. President is both head of state and government.
  4. Clear separation of powers.
  5. Example: United States, Brazil.


5. Constitutional Democracy

  1. Definition: A form of democracy governed by a constitution that limits the powers of government and protects individual rights.
  2. Features:
  3. Rule of law and fundamental rights are upheld.
  4. Courts can review laws and actions of the government.
  5. Example: India, Germany.


Conclusion:

Different kinds of democracy reflect the diverse ways in which political power can be structured and exercised while upholding the core principle of popular sovereignty. Understanding these forms is crucial for analysing governance models in constitutional democracies like India.