Political Science - I : Previous Year Questions (2016)

2016

Time: 3 Hours                                                                                                  

Max Marks: 50

PART – A

Answer the following questions in one sentence each. (10 x 1 = 10)

Q1. Credo of Relevance.

Ans. The Credo of Relevance asserts that political research should be concerned with contemporary political problems and offer solutions or insights that are meaningful and applicable to the real world, bridging the gap between theory and practice.

Q2. Elements of State.

Ans. Modern State is constituted of four elements:

1. Population – a group of people living together,
2. Territory – a definite geographical area,
3. Government – the machinery through which laws are made and enforced,
4. Sovereignty – the supreme authority of the state, free from external control.

Q3. Monistic theory of sovereignty.

Ans. The Legal or Monistic theory of sovereignty is most closely associated with John Austin, who developed this classical theory in the 19th century as part of his legal positivist approach. This theory views sovereignty as the supreme, absolute, and indivisible authority within a political system.

Q4. Write down one main feature of modern perspective of Political Science.

Ans. One main feature of modern perspective of political science is: “Emphasis on Scientific Study”.

It aims to develop generalizations and theories that can be tested and verified. Unlike the traditional approach that was largely philosophical and normative (focused on what 'ought to be'), modern political science seeks to be descriptive and analytical (focused on what 'is'). It uses systematic observation, classification, and generalization, similar to the natural sciences.

Q5. Define Politics.

Ans. Politics is the process by which groups of people make decisions, typically involving the acquisition and exercise of power to determine the authoritative allocation of resources and values within a society or group.

Q6. What do you mean by positive liberty?

Ans. The positive concept of liberty refers to “Liberty with reasonable restrictions.” It is in line with the social atmosphere and maintains that it is based on the socio-economic and political conditions of the society. It emphasises upon the social and economic aspects of liberty.

Q7. Name out two National Political Parties.

Ans. Bhartiya Janta Party (BJP) and Indian National Congress (INC).

Q8. Define Authority.

Ans. Authority refers to the legitimate power or right to command, make decisions, and enforce obedience. Unlike mere power, which can be based on coercion or force, authority is recognized as rightful and accepted by those who are subject to it. It implies that the governed acknowledge the right of the ruler or institution to issue directives, and they comply not out of fear, but out of a sense of obligation or legitimacy.

1. According to Allen, “Authority is the sum of powers and rights interested to make performance of work delegated.”

Q9. Define Human Rights.

Ans. Human beings are born equal in dignity and rights. These are moral claims which are inalienable and inherent in all individuals by virtue of their humanity alone, irrespective of any difference or any other consideration. These claims are articulated and formulated and what is today known as Human Rights.

Q10. Define Power.

Ans. It refers to the ability or capacity of an individual or group to influence, control, or direct the behaviour of others, often in the context of governance, law, and public policy. Power determines who gets what, when, and how, making it central to understanding political structures, institutions, and relations.

1. According to Herbert and Edward Shills, “Power is the ability to influence the behaviour of others in accordance with one’s own ends.”

PART – B

Answer the following questions in 4-5 lines each. Each question carries 4 marks. (4 x 4 = 16)

Q11. Differentiate between Traditional and Modern Perspective of Political Science.

Ans. The traditional and modern perspectives of Political Science differ mainly in their focus, methods, and understanding of what “politics” includes.

In simple terms, the traditional view is State-centred, philosophical, and institutional, while the modern view is people-centred, empirical, and behaviour-oriented. Both perspectives contribute to our understanding of politics, but the modern approach provides a more holistic and realistic picture of how political life actually functions.

Q12. What are the differences between State and Government?

Ans. The term government and state at times are used interchangeably. The stewards of England didn’t differentiate between State and Government. They did so to justify their absolute authority. It was John Locke in the 19^th Century, who first differentiated between the State and the Government.

There are many differences between the State and the Government which established that the Government cannot attain the status of statehood:

1. Government is the Agent of the State –

Government is an organisation or machinery through which the state benefits itself. Woodrow Wilson has remarked that the state is juristically organised in its government and can only speak through the government. It is also said that the government is the agency or machinery through which the collective will of the people of the State is formulated, expressed and executed

Thus, the Government serves as an agent who carry the purpose of the State.

2. Government is Only Part of the State –

Government is only one of the four basic elements which constitute a State. It is an important constituent because State cannot function without Government. It is the Government that carries out the purpose of the State and maintain law and order in society.

3. State possess Sovereignty, but Government doesn’t –

There can be no State without Sovereignty. A State claims the status of Statehood once it attains Sovereignty. The Government does not attain sovereignty because in democracy, state sovereignty is transferred to public and people are regarded as the source of power.

4. Government changes frequently but the State remains more or less Permanent –

Government changes frequently or can collapse due to certain reasons and other political party might get a chance to form their own government.

5. State is Uniform throughout but the Governments are of many kind –

Government is of many types such as parliamentary, presidential, communist, monarchical, military rule etc. but the State is uniform whatever kind of government is created within the State.

6. Membership of the State is compulsory but not of the Government –

Every person by virtue of his birth or his blood relation is member of the state but it entirely depends upon the will of the people to become a member of the government or not.

7. Territory is an Essential Characteristic of the State but not of the Government –

Fixed territory is an essential element of the state but not of the government. No state can exist without a territory but a government can function without territory also. At times, the government of the state is established in some other state and still can function when re-established in its own state.

8. State is Abstract but Government is Concrete –

State is not concrete and does not have any practical concern. So far as government is concerned, it is practical. It has its own concrete establishment. It carries out the purpose of the state to its various department and agencies.

According to Laski, “State is nothing but Government, and assumes complete reality in the Government only.”

9. People can Oppose the Government but not the State –

People cannot afford to oppose the State because they have no right to do so. Government is servant of the State and if it goes against collective will of the people, then people can oppose the Government.

10. The State includes the whole Population but the Government includes only a few people –

The whole population of the state forms an essential component of the state but the government includes only those people who actively participate in the functioning of the government.

Q13. Discuss the relation between Rights and Duties.

Ans. Rights and duties are deeply interconnected, and understanding their relationship is essential for a healthy society. Rights provide individuals with the opportunities and freedoms necessary for personal development, such as the right to equality, freedom, or education. But these rights can only be enjoyed fully when people also fulfil their duties, which help maintain order and protect the rights of others.

For instance, while citizens have the right to freedom of expression, they also have the duty not to spread misinformation or hatred. Similarly, enjoying the right to protection by the state means we must obey laws and cooperate with authorities. In everyday life, duties like respecting others, keeping public spaces clean, and participating in democratic processes directly support our own rights and the rights of those around us.

If people claim rights without performing their duties, society becomes unbalanced and conflicts increase. On the other hand, when citizens take their duties seriously, everyone’s rights become more secure and meaningful. Therefore, rights and duties are complementary. They depend on each other and together create a fair, responsible, and peaceful social environment.

Q14. Point out the safeguards of Liberty.

Ans. Following safeguards are necessary for the protection of Liberty:

1. Eternal Vigilance – Vigilance among people is very necessary for the protection of liberty. Men should be aware of their liberty, rights and duties. If they are not aware of their responsibilities towards liberty, they will lose their liberty.

2. Democratic Government – For the development of liberty, democratic government provides an appropriate atmosphere. Democratic government is of the people and is responsible to the people. Government can be changed according to time and man has liberty to express his thoughts and views and to criticize the government. People do not let the government to limit the liberty of people.

3. Co-operation between the People and the Government – Government can protect liberty only when the people give proper co-operation to the Government. If the people do not obey the laws and do not help in apprehending the culprits, government cannot protect the liberty. The people should strongly oppose any attack on their liberty and they should support the government to suppress such elements.

4. Fundamental Rights – Fundamental Rights should be included in the constitution and there should be arrangement for the protection of those Fundamental Rights. Fundamental Rights act as a shield for the protection of freedom and create proper conditions for the enjoyment of liberty. According to some scholars, rights and liberty are the two sides of the same coin and in the absence of rights, there is no place of liberty.

5. Separation of Powers – The powers of the government should be separated among executive, legislature and the judiciary. This will help in preventing any organ of the government to become absolute. Every organ of the government will operate in its own framework.

According to Montesquieu, “separation of powers is an essential condition for the enjoyment of liberty and the countries where there is separation of powers the people enjoy more liberty.”

6. Independent Judiciary – Independent, powerful and impartial judiciary is the biggest protector of liberty. Whenever any individual, organization or government violates the liberty of an individual he/ she can knock at the door of the judiciary and where there are no such provisions, the liberty becomes just a mockery.

PART – C

Answer the following questions in 400 words each. Attempt any three. Each question carries 8 marks. (3 x 8 = 24)

Q15. Describe the welfare theory of state.

Ans. The Welfare Theory of the State represents the most comprehensive and modern objective of the State. It fundamentally posits that the primary purpose of the State is to promote the maximum well-being or human welfare of its citizens in every sphere of life—social, economic, and political.

1. Core Purpose: Human Welfare

The essence of this theory lies in moving beyond the minimalist "law and order" functions.

1. As famously stated by John Locke, the very purpose of Government is Human Welfare.

1. Thinkers like Ritchie reinforce this by defining the State's goal as the achievement of the best life by the individual.

1. Giddings provides a beautiful summation: The State's purpose is to create an atmosphere where all people can lead a supreme and sufficient life, ensuring quality and adequacy in existence.

In contrast to the Individualist view (which wants to severely limit the State's role to only protection and enforcing contracts), the Welfare Theory, much like the view of the Socialists, aims to expand the State's activities in every sphere for the collective good.

2. Comprehensive Functions of the Welfare State

A Modern Welfare State performs functions that can be broadly classified into two categories, often defined as Compulsory (Essential) and Optional (Developmental), as detailed by scholars like Wilson.

A. Compulsory (Essential) Functions:

These are the non-negotiable, basic duties the State must perform to ensure security and justice. These functions are universally accepted by all political systems today.

1. Protection and Order: Maintaining law and order, protecting life and property against violence, and ensuring protection from external aggression (as highlighted by Adam Smith and Individualists).

1. Justice and Legality: Establishing a legal framework by making rules regarding property, family relations, and implementing agreements. This includes fixing crimes, awarding punishment, and giving justice in civil matters.

1. External Relations: Managing relations with foreign countries for the nation's benefit and security.

B. Optional (Developmental/Welfare) Functions:

These are the expanding duties that define the welfare aspect, focusing on the quality of life and societal development.

1. Social & Health Care: Making arrangements for health and cleanliness, establishing hospitals, ensuring water, sanitation, and lighting in towns and villages. The State also eradicates social evils like child marriage and drinking.

1. Economic Development: Regulating commerce and industry, making laws for the benefit of labourers, controlling prices, and managing imports and exports. The State constructs essential infrastructure like roads and highways.

1. Education and Social Security: Providing education, and most importantly, taking care of the vulnerable. This includes making arrangements for the livelihood of the poor, invalid, and the old, often through pensions.

1. Cultural & Moral Reform: Protecting prosperity, conserving natural resources (like growing forests and increasing fish in rivers), and striving to bring about moral reforms.

Conclusion

In essence, the Welfare State is a positive state that actively intervenes to achieve national life completeness by developing the health, welfare, morality, and intellect of the society, as noted by Berns. It is a State that not only protects rights but provides opportunities for citizens to achieve the best possible life, protecting them from both internal and external threats, as well as economic and social distress.

Q16. Describe the behavioural approach and its limitations.

Ans. The origin of Behavioural Revolution in the field of Political analysis emerged after and World War -II. The term Behaviouralism refers to a Pure science approach to the Problems of Life.

1. Robert Dane Describes, "Behaviouralism as a Protest movement within Political Science. It registers its protest against the achievements of classical or traditional Political "Theory. It deals with facts and attempts to make the empirical element of Political science more accurate.

In simple woods, Behaviouralism emphasises Scientific, objective and value- free study of Political Phenomenon, Particularly the Behaviour of the individuals in that Phenomenon."

Basic Assumptions and Characteristics of Behaviouralism:

David Easton represented the Behavioural Revolution in Political Science by presenting its key features which he called the Eight Intellectual Foundation Stones:

1. Regularities
2. Verification
3. Use of Techniques
4. Quantification
5. Vale-Free
6. Systematization
7. Pure Science
8. Integration

Criticism or Limitations of Behaviouralism:

Behaviouralism, a movement in political science that sought to make the discipline more scientific, faced significant criticism. Its key limitations include:

1. Defect of Verbosity – Behaviouralism's emphasis on precise measurement and data collection often led to lengthy, jargon-filled studies that described obvious findings. Critics argued that it was a case of "much ado about nothing," where complex methodologies were used to state what was already commonly known, sacrificing depth and meaningful insight for scientific rigor.

2. Value-Free Study is not Possible – A core tenet of Behaviouralism was the pursuit of a value-free study of politics, separating "facts" from "values." However, critics argued that this is impossible. The very act of choosing a topic to study, a methodology, or a specific set of data to analyze involves a subjective value judgment. Political scientists, as human beings, cannot completely detach their own biases and beliefs from their research, making a truly objective, value-free science of politics unattainable.

3. Contradiction in Ideas – There was an inherent contradiction within the behaviouralist movement itself. While it championed objectivity and the scientific method, the movement was often driven by a normative desire to reform political science and make it more "relevant" and "respectable." This underlying goal was a value judgment in itself, undermining the claim of being purely empirical and value-free.

4. Expensive Methodology – The quantitative and data-driven methods of Behaviouralism were often expensive and time-consuming. Conducting large-scale surveys, collecting extensive data, and using sophisticated statistical analysis required significant financial resources and labour. This made it difficult for individual researchers or smaller institutions to conduct behaviouralist research, limiting its widespread application.

5. Risk of Losing Independent Identity of Political Science – By borrowing heavily from other social sciences like sociology, psychology, and economics, critics feared that political science would lose its unique identity. Instead of focusing on core political concepts like power, authority, and justice, the discipline might be reduced to a mere sub-discipline of psychology or sociology, studying political behaviour without a deeper philosophical or historical context.

6. Fundamental Difference between Political Science and Natural Sciences – Critics argue that the subject matter of political science, human behaviour, is fundamentally different from the natural sciences. Unlike the predictable and replicable phenomena studied in physics or chemistry, human behaviour is complex, dynamic, and often irrational. It cannot be subjected to the same laws and predictive models, making a true "science" of politics impossible in the same vein as the natural sciences.

7. Human Political Behaviour cannot be Understood in a Scientific Manner – As an extension of the previous point, critics argued that a purely scientific approach fails to capture the richness and complexity of human motivation. Political behaviour is influenced by emotions, beliefs, cultural norms, and historical context, which cannot be easily quantified or measured. This leads to a superficial understanding that misses the deeper reasons behind political actions.

8. Problem in Micro and Macro Units – Behaviouralism's focus on micro-level analysis (individual behaviour) made it difficult to explain macro-level phenomena like revolutions, war, or the functioning of entire political systems. While it could explain why an individual might vote for a particular candidate, it struggled to provide a comprehensive explanation for large-scale political events.

9. Unable to Help in Policy Making – Despite its claim to be a "problem-solving" science, Behaviouralism’s focus on description and explanation often provided little practical guidance for policy-makers. By shunning value judgments and normative questions (like "what is a good policy?"), it failed to offer concrete solutions or recommendations to pressing political problems, making it seem academically isolated and irrelevant to the real world of politics.

Q17. Elaborate the theory of justice of John Rawls.

Ans. It is one of the most important theories in the field of jurisprudence and Political Science. His work has left a landmark, introducing a legal theory that aims for a society with liberty, equality, and justice for all. Rawls’ influence in the field is evident, as he attempted to provide a moral theory which is an alternative to utilitarianism and addresses the problem of distributive justice.

John Rawls’ concept of Social Justice gives emphasis to fairness, i.e., it must be fair to all, to the most talented as well as the most disadvantaged section. Rawl proposes an experiment where the individual is behind the veil of ignorance. He concludes that the nature of society to be established would give priority to the following in Lexical Order:

1. Maximum Personal Liberty
2. Equality of Opportunity
3. Difference Principle

It follows that any principle of justice, including those that regulate economic and social inequalities must be acceptable to all and help each citizen pursue his or her conception of the good.

In the Indian context, the positive discrimination in favour of certain disadvantaged sections can be considered as the incorporation of the 3^rd principle of Rawl. In India too, we have given maximum liberty and equality of opportunity for free enterprise. We have provided for a number of welfare programmes as a safety net for the disadvantaged sections to protect them. The Constitution of India has favoured to establish an egalitarian society instead of a meritocratic society.

Rawl argues that the only way we can arrive at a fair and just rule is if we imagine ourselves to be in a situation in which we have make decisions about how society should be organised, although we do not know which position we would ourselves occupy in that society, i.e., we do not know what kind of family we would be born in, whether we would be born into an “Upper” caste or “Lower” caste family, rich or poor, privileged or disadvantaged.

Rawl argues that if we do not know, in this sense, who will be and what options would be available to us in the future society, we will be likely to support a decision about the rules and organisation of that future society which would be fair for all the members.

Rawl describes this as thinking under the “Veil of Ignorance.” He expects that in such a situation of complete ignorance about our possible position and status in a society, each person would decide in the way they generally do, i.e., in terms of their own interests. But, since no one knows who he would be and what is going to benefit him, each will envisage the future society from the point of view of the worst-off.

The “Merit” of number 1 position is that it expects people to just be their usual rational selves, they are expected to think for themselves and choose what they regard to be in their interest.   

Q18. Define Political Party. Discuss the importance of political parties in democracy.

Ans. A political party is a core institution in political science, defined as an organized group of people with broadly similar political aims and opinions, who come together to contest elections and hold power in the government. They seek to promote the collective good based on an agreed-upon set of policies and programs, often encapsulated in their party platform or manifesto.

According to Gilchrist,

“A Political Party may thus be defined as an organised group of citizens who prefer to share the same political views and who by acting as a political unit try to control the government.”

Elements of Political Parties:

A political part typically consists of three main elements: -

1. The Leader/Leaders - The top-level individuals responsible for formulating policies, making major decisions, and serving as the public face of the party.

2. The Active Members - Those directly involved in party activities, organization, meetings, and spreading the party's ideology at the grassroots level.

3. The Followers – Ordinary citizens who believe in the party’s principle and policies, showing support primarily by voting for the party’s candidates in elections.

Essentials of Political Parties:

Four things are essential for the formation of political parties: -

1. The people should be organised.
2. There should be similarity of principles.
3. The aim of the Political Party should be to attain political power.
4. A political party should use peaceful means for attaining political power.

Importance of Political Parties in Democracy:

Political parties are often described as the “lifeblood of democracy,” because democratic governance cannot function smoothly without them. They act as a bridge between the people and the government, ensuring that public opinion is transformed into concrete policies and collective action. Their importance becomes clearer when we see the key roles they play in democratic political life.

1. Structured way for citizens to participate

Political parties provide a structured way for citizens to participate in politics. In a large, complex society, it is impossible for every individual to directly influence government decisions. Parties organise people with similar views and interests, enabling them to express their demands collectively. This transforms scattered public opinions into organised political pressure.

2. Contesting Elections

Political parties are essential for contesting elections. They select candidates, design election campaigns, present manifestos, and mobilise voters. Without political parties, elections would become chaotic, and citizens would find it difficult to choose among numerous independent candidates with no clear policy direction. Parties give voters ideological clarity and offer alternative programmes for national development.

3. Forming and running the government

In parliamentary democracies, the party (or coalition) with a majority forms the government, while the others act as the opposition. This ensures accountability because the ruling party must explain and justify its decisions, while the opposition questions policies, exposes errors, and presents alternative solutions. This healthy tension strengthens democratic governance.

4. Political Education

Through meetings, campaigns, debates, and public speeches, parties inform citizens about national issues, government policies, and their rights and duties. They help ordinary people understand complex political, social and economic matters, thereby deepening democratic awareness.

5. Policy Formulation

Moreover, parties perform the vital task of policy formulation. They develop programmes based on their ideology and the needs of society. Whether the issue is economic development, social justice, national security, or welfare schemes, parties debate these matters and propose solutions. This competition of ideas enriches democracy and encourages well-thought-out policies.

6. Integrating diverse social groups

In countries with cultural, religious, or linguistic diversity, political parties act as instruments of social accommodation. They bring together people from different backgrounds and build consensus on national issues. This reduces conflict and promotes unity.

7. Political Stability

Finally, political parties help maintain political stability. By offering leadership, managing transitions of power, resolving disagreements within the political system, and channelling public discontent into peaceful forms of protest, they prevent political chaos and ensure continuity.

In summary, political parties are indispensable to democracy. They organise public opinion, contest elections, form governments, educate citizens, integrate diverse groups, and maintain political accountability. Without political parties, a democratic system would remain incomplete and ineffective.