Political Science - II : Previous Year Questions (2025)

PART – A

Q1. Define International Relations.

Ans. International Relations (IR) is the study of interactions between sovereign states, non-state actors (like NGOs and corporations), and international organizations. It explores the dynamics of power, conflict, cooperation, and foreign policy, analysing how these relationships shape global governance, security, economics, and law.

Q2. Point out any four factors posing limitations to national power.

Ans. Four factors posing limitations to national power:

1. International Law
2. International Morality
3. World Public Opinion
4. Collective Security Principle

Q3. What is the significance of Foreign Policy?

Ans. The most important significance of foreign policy of a nation is its national interest. All nations conduct their foreign relations for attainment of national interest. It helps in clearly reflecting the national policy as well as traditional values of a country.

Q4. Define Détente.

Ans. Détente is a French word which means relaxation of tensions. It was used to describe the normalisation of relations between the USA and the USSR in international relations. During the 1970s, both superpowers decided to overcome the cold war and relax their relations into the era of détente. But a new cold war was started on early 1980s. Fortunately, the new cold war got replaced by new détente in 1987. The new détente played a big role in ending the cold war in international relations.

Q5. Explain Perestroika and Glasnost.

Ans. Perestroika (restructuring) and Glasnost (openness) were 1980s reforms by Mikhail Gorbachev to modernize the Soviet Union. Perestroika decentralized the economy, allowing limited private enterprise, while Glasnost increased freedom of speech, allowed criticism of the government, and fostered transparency. Together, they inadvertently weakened the USSR, contributing to its 1991 collapse.

Q6. What do you understand by Bi-Polarity?

Ans. Bipolarity refers to a power structure in international relations characterized by the dominance of two major powers or superpowers. In a bipolar system, these two powers have significantly greater military, economic, and political influence than other states or actors, leading to a relative balance of power between them. 

Q7. State any three causes of the emergence of neo-colonialism.

Ans. Three causes of emergence of neo-colonialism:

1. Colonial Legacy - The historical legacy of colonialism laid the foundation for neo-colonialism. Former colonial powers established economic and political systems that continued to favour their interests even after formal independence. They maintained control over key sectors, resources, and markets, perpetuating economic and political dependency.
2. Economic Interests - The pursuit of economic interests by developed countries is a significant driver of neo-colonialism. Developed nations seek to secure access to natural resources, cheap labour, and new markets in developing countries. They utilize economic mechanisms such as unfair trade practices, unequal investment flows, and debt dependency to maintain control and extract wealth from these nations.
3. International Financial Institutions - International financial institutions, such as the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF), play a role in perpetuating neo-colonialism. Conditions imposed by these institutions as part of loan agreements often prioritize economic policies that align with the interests of developed countries, leading to the erosion of national sovereignty and exacerbating economic dependency.

Q8. State any four functions of Diplomacy.

Ans. Four functions of diplomacy:

1. Negotiation – Most important function of diplomacy. This involves a variety of activities ranging from simple consultation, exchange of views, to full-fledged negotiation of specific issues. Negotiations has to take into account the mentalities, value system, and public opinion of both domestic and foreign political systems.
2. Protection of National Interest – Although a diplomat is expected to be person grata to the government of the state, i.e., he must get along with the government of the country he is accredited to, yet protecting and furthering the national interest of his country is his prime duty. This is the bedrock of the practice of diplomacy.
3. Reporting – The data and information collected from the host country must be reported to the diplomat’s own government. These reports cover every considerable subject which may be important for his country.
4. Protection of nationals abroad – This involves protecting the lives and promotion of interests of nationals residing or travelling abroad.

Q9. Write the relevance of Balance of Power.

Ans. In international relations, BOP is defined as the distribution of equal powers among the nations. When the power is more or less equally distributed, then no state can eliminate others and no state feels threatened.

The logic behind BOP theory is that there is no world government. And each state has to rely on its own resources and strategies to prevent being attacked from another. So, when a nation faces threat from a powerful country, it either mobilises its own resources or gets into alliance with other states, so as to balance power.

Q10. Name any three military alliances.

Ans. Three military alliances:

1. NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization): A collective defence alliance of 32 countries from North America and Europe.
2. Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO): A Eurasian political, economic, and military organization founded in 1996, including China, Russia, India, and Iran, among others.
3. Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO): A Eurasian alliance formed in 1992, comprising Russia, Belarus, Armenia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and Tajikistan.

PART – B

Q11. Discuss the scope of International Relations.

Ans. As a subject of study, international relations is relatively new and developing subject. Its scope is continuously expanding and developing.

The scope of international relations includes:

1. State System – The study of international relations begins with the state system as it has a great impact on international scene since last three centuries. Sovereign states strive to fulfil their interest. The incompatible interest of these sovereign states cause conflict, and international politics studies those national outcomes of conflict of sovereign states. Not all states come in conflict with other states. Some due to military, economic, racial, or cultural links cooperate with each other peacefully.
2. Relation in conflict and cooperation – International relations studies relations between two or more states which are often complex and influenced by a variety of geopolitical, historical, social, religious, ideological, strategic, and leadership factors. Broadly speaking, these relationships have taken the form of cooperation and conflict. In spite of the fact there are more conflict in international history than cooperation, both have co-existed throughout the various period of history of international relations.
3. National Interest – It is an unclear concept that carries a meaning according to the context in which it is used. Governments have always used it in ways suitable to them and to their objective of justifying the actions of their state. It is the national interest that determines the shape of scope of international relations of countries. This in turn, affects the direction of global relations. Accordingly, the scope of international relations includes the study of objectives of various countries, they try to achieve under their national interest.
4. Power – It is ultimately the power that determines the inter-state relations. The success or failure of a country that achieves the objective it has set under its national interest is depending upon the extent of national power of a country. Thus, super power will be in better position to pursue its national interest agenda, than a regional or smaller power. The study of national power forms an important part of the subject matter of international relations.

Q12. Explain the relationship between Foreign Policy and Diplomacy.

Ans. In the study of International Relations, the terms foreign policy and diplomacy are frequently used interchangeably; however, they represent distinct components of a state's international activity. Understanding the nuances between the two is essential for grasping how states interact on the global stage.

Conceptual Distinctions: Substance vs. Method

The most fundamental distinction lies in their nature: Foreign policy is the substance, while diplomacy is the process.

• Foreign Policy: This represents the "what" of international relations. It is a set of strategic goals, principles, and national requirements formulated by a state to protect its interests. As Sir Harold Nicholson noted, it is a "general conception of national requirements."
• Diplomacy: This is the "how." It encompasses the techniques, negotiations, and communications used to implement those strategies. It is the tactical agency through which a state pursues its objectives through dialogue and agreement rather than through coercion or conflict.

Implementation and Agency

Foreign policy acts as the rule-making body, establishing the trajectory of a nation’s external affairs. In contrast, diplomacy is the rule-application body, serving as the practical instrument for day-to-day execution.

While the Head of State or Government is typically responsible for the formulation of policy, the diplomatic corps (ambassadors, envoys, and foreign service officers) is responsible for its conduct.

Key Differences

The Dynamics of Foreign Policy Formulation

Foreign policy is not created in a vacuum; it is an expression of a state's internal health and external pressures. Several factors influence its development:

• Internal Stability: The quality of leadership, economic strength, and social cohesion directly impact the firmness of a state's foreign policy.
• National Interest: Every state seeks to improve its domestic conditions by fostering beneficial relations with others. This is the primary driver of policy.
• Adaptability: In an unpredictable global environment, foreign policy must be reflexive. It involves a constant cycle of action and reaction as states adapt to the opportunities or threats presented by others.

Foreign Policy vs. International Politics

It is important to distinguish foreign policy from international politics.

• International Politics refers to the broader, systemic interaction between various states, governed by international law and global power dynamics.
• Foreign Policy is state-centric; it refers specifically to the goals and planned programs of a single state as it navigates those broader international interactions.

Modern Transparency and Coordination

In the contemporary era, the "myth of the state secret" has largely eroded. Foreign policies are now subject to public scrutiny, academic analysis, and media debate. For a state to be successful, there must be unity of action. This means that all diplomatic maneuvers, public statements by Foreign Ministers, and international agreements must remain strictly aligned with the overarching national interest.

Conclusion

Ultimately, diplomacy is the specialized skill set, characterized by tact, negotiation, and mediation, that allows a nation to achieve its foreign policy goals. While foreign policy provides the vision, diplomacy provides the path, ensuring that a state’s national interests are pursued through sophisticated engagement in the global arena.

Q13. What are the methods of maintaining Balance of Power?

Ans. In international relations, BOP is defined as the distribution of equal powers among the nations. When the power is more or less equally distributed, then no state can eliminate others and no state feels threatened.

Balance of Power as described by some eminent personalities:

• Sidney Fay describes it as just equilibrium so that none of the states become strong enough to exert its will or force on another state.
• Inis Claude explains it as, “a system in which nations regulate their power relations without any interference by any big power.

The logic behind BOP theory is that there is no world government. And each state has to rely on its own resources and strategies to prevent being attacked from another. So, when a nation faces threat from a powerful country, it either mobilises its own resources or gets into alliance with other states, so as to balance power.

Methods of Balance of Power:

There are various methods of Balance of Power. Some are as follows: -

1. Compensation – It is mainly territorial compensation. A state gets divided or annexed if it is considered dangerous for the balance. Colonial powers used their methods to divide the territories amongst themselves if there was a threat to their colonial possessions and to balance among them. Prior to World War – I, European imperial powers divided and caved out new borders of small states, especially in the Eastern Europe and the Balkans.
2. Alliances and Counter Alliances – A group of nations enter into alliance to counter the threat and secure their position, and enhance their power in international system. Usually, a formation of an alliance leads to counter alliance. During cold war, USA formed NATO, SEATO, CENTO and Soviet Union formed Warsaw pact.
3. Intervention and Non – intervention - It’s a dictatorial method and carried out to change or maintain as desired situation in a country. USSR’s intervention in Afghanistan, American intervention in Cuba, North Korea, Vietnam, Iraq are few examples.
4. Divide and Rule – It’s a diverse measure to control and weaken the opponent. For example: China has been trying to breach or beak the unity among the ASEAN nations, so that they do not stand united against its aggressive moves in the South China Sea.
5. Buffer Zones – These are neutral areas that separate two big powers which are generally adversaries. Each superpower then tries to exert influence on the buffer zone and take its control leading to struggle between the two big powers in the neutral zone.
6. Armaments and Disarmaments – To secure themselves in the international system, countries compete in arms race by accumulating weapons for their defence. This can be dangerous to world peace and security, and can lead to war. Currently, disarmament has gained traction where countries are asked to reduce and gradually eliminate the use of weapons as defence and offense mechanism. Treaties like Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT), Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons, asks for banning weapons.
7. Balancer – This concept is used less frequently now, given the unipolarity or mutli-polarity syndrome in the world order. But earlier, Britain played the role of a balancer in Europe. A balancer plays a neutral role and is not allied to any of the contending party. It negotiates and mediates between the two, so as to keep balance.

Q14. What is the importance of National Power?

Ans. National power is the ability or capability of a nation to secure the goals and objectives of its national interest, in relation with other nations. It involves the capacity to use force or threat or influence over others for securing the goals of national interest.

Importance of National Power:

1. Survival and National Security - The primary importance of national power is the preservation of sovereignty. In an anarchic international system where there is no world government, a state must rely on its own power (military strength, technology, and geography) to deter aggression and defend its borders from external threats.
2. Achievement of National Interests - National power is the "currency" used to pursue a country's objectives. Whether it is securing favourable trade deals, gaining access to natural resources, or protecting citizens abroad, a nation’s diplomatic leverage is directly proportional to its perceived power.
3. Influence in Global Governance - Power allows a state to play a role in international decision-making. Stronger nations have a greater say in international organizations (like the UN, G20, or IMF) and can shape international laws, norms, and policies to align with their own values and economic needs.
4. Economic Prosperity and Development - A significant component of national power is economic capability. A powerful state can control and stabilise its domestic economy, dictate terms in international markets, and invest in research and development, ensuring long-term growth and technological superiority.

Without national power, a state remains a passive spectator in global affairs, vulnerable to the whims and interests of more powerful actors. It is the essential tool for self-preservation and self-assertion.

PART – C

Q15. Discuss the determinants of Foreign Policy.

Ans. Foreign policy is a set of strategic principles and actions adopted by a state to manage its relationships with other nations. Its primary purpose is to protect and advance national interests such as security, economic prosperity, and the well-being of its citizens, within the complex environment of global interdependence.

Constituents of Foreign Policy

The foreign policy of a nation includes:

1. A set of principles, policies, and decisions, adopted and followed by a nation globally.
2. Objectives and goals of national interest which are to be achieved.
3. For conducting international relations, it includes broad principles and decisions.
4. Assessment of achievements and losses of the nation in terms of its goals of national interest.
5. Means or nature of actions to be taken to achieve the goals or objectives of national interest.
6. Policies, decisions, and action-programmes for maintaining continuity or change in international relations.

Objectives of Foreign Policy

Padelford and Lincoln identified 4 main objectives of the foreign policy of a state as significant:

1. National Security
2. Economic Advancement
3. Argumentation of National Power in relation to other states
4. International Prestige

Determinants of Foreign Policy

The foreign policy of a country is determined by the number of elements which are influenced by various factors. The determinants vary in terms of its importance as per the circumstances. In general, the basic determinants of foreign policy can be broadly classified into two categories – Internal Factors and External Factors.

Internal Factors:

1. Geography – It is a permanent and stable factor which determines the states’ foreign policy. Geography includes location, size, topography, state boundaries, climate, population, natural resources, etc. of a nation. The size of the nation influences the psychological and operational environment within which policy makers and public respond. Large size of the state cannot be considered as an independent determinant as state power is increased by large, it has the capacity to accommodate large population and contains varied supply of natural resources. The geostrategic location of the state is also an important factor in policy formulation. Climatic conditions of the state are another geographical feature that plays a crucial role in the determination of a state’s foreign policy. Position of natural resources increases bargaining capacity of a state internationally and helps in foreign policy choices, but it must be stated that effect of geography has lost much lost much of its importance due to the recent developments of science and technology.
2. History and Culture – History of a nation has its influence on foreign policy making. Political tradition of a nation is rooted in its history and culture. The basic foreign policy objective is guided considerably by the historical and cultural tradition of the state. For example: many developing countries including India have strongly taken stand for anti-imperialism, anti-colonialism, and anti-racism, due to the bitter experience of colonialism, imperialism, and racism.
3. National Capacity – It includes military strength, economic development and technological progress of the nation. The economic position of the nations in terms of Gross National Product (GNP) which enables a nation to understand its ability to utilise its natural and human resources, also helped a nation in foreign policy choices. The highly developed countries in terms of economy, technology, and military have the advantage in gaining desired objective in their relations with economically and technologically weaker countries. Developing countries due to their dependence on the developed countries for capital, technology and military research and development loses the power to formulate an independent foreign policy.
4. Public Opinion –  It is not possible for the government of a state to ignore or go against the public opinion for long. In democratic state especially, the government cannot dare to ignore the importance of the public opinion in both domestic and foreign policies. Public opinion has gained more importance in the world at present. Public opinion in case of foreign policy, sets limitations on choices of policies and constraints in policy execution.
5. Ideology – Ideology of a state generally influences the foreign policy of a state so far as it determines the goals to be achieved by the state in international relations. The emergence of 2 types of foreign policy in the post-World War – II period is largely due to the ideological conflict between USSR and USA. Generally, there is a lot of affinity in the policy of states professing a particular ideology and feelings of enmity among the states propounding other ideologies.
6. Social and Political Structures – The foreign policy of a state is influenced to great extent by the nature of political system and ruling elite. For Example: foreign policy of a democratic state would be different from the foreign policy of an authoritarian state. Whenever there is a sudden change in the government of the state, it leads to change in course of foreign policy in the state.
7. Role of Policy Makers: Attitude of the policy makers also determine the foreign policy. Foreign policy is based significantly on the leadership qualities as it determines the strength and direction of foreign policy of the state. It is very strongly related to psychological traits, personality, and willingness of the leaders in the formulation of foreign policy. There is major role played by ruling elite and the decision makers and in accordance with their perception of reality. The policy makers take due note of the relevant values, relevant sectors of the environment, and accordingly determine the objectives of foreign policy. The decision makers interpret the national income and also perceive the external environment by formulating the foreign policy. The impact of views and personalities of the ruling elite on foreign policy formulation is quite natural. Foreign policy is however, not the result of role played by few leaders only. It is also the interplay of various other determinants and pressures of bureaucrats.

External Factors:

External environment is also very necessary while formulating foreign policy of a scale. International laws, treaties, agreements, facts, international and regional organisations considerably influence and also limits the making of foreign policy of the state.

The external determinants include:

1. International Organisations – International organisations such as the UN and others aimed at maintaining world peace and order and international law. UNO’s activities and other agencies such as IMF, World Bank, SAARC, ASEAN, etc. also have profound influence on the foreign policy formation of the state.
2. World Public Opinion – Like domestic public opinion, world public opinion has a strong influence on foreign policy making. No nation can dare to go against the world’s public opinion or challenge it. World public opinion has its impact on various issues such as human rights, war, peace, environment, and this is mainly due to increasing consciousness among people.
3. Interest of other state – While formulating foreign policy, a state has to take into account the interest of other member states as well.  If a state tries to base its foreign policy on self-interest, it would not only bring the state in conflict with other state but also will make the interest of other states impossible to meet.

Significance of Foreign Policy

The most important significance of foreign policy of a nation is its national interest. All nations engage in foreign relations for attainment of national interest. It helps in clearly reflecting the national policy as well as traditional values of a country.

The importance of foreign policy is that it helps the national government to device strategies, guidelines, methods, and agreements, and assist them in dealing in the international arena. Sovereign states interact with each other by keeping in view their foreign policy. Thus, foreign policy acts as a charter.

Foreign policy states the points on which a state can agree with the other state and where they cannot get into terms with each other. The sole reason behind the possibility of this agreement and disagreement is the national interest of a state.

Q16. Write a note on Détente, New Cold War, and New Détente.

Ans. Détente is a French word which means relaxation of tensions. It was used to describe the normalisation of relations between the USA and the USSR in international relations. During the 1970s, both superpowers decided to overcome the cold war and relax their relations into the era of détente. But a new cold war was started on early 1980s. Fortunately, the new cold war got replaced by new détente in 1987. The new détente played a big role in ending the cold war in international relations.

Causes of First Détente

The following were the chief reasons for the emergence of détente of 1970s:

1. Cuban Missile Crisis - The 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis stands as the most terrifying turning point in the Cold War because it stripped away the theoretical nature of nuclear conflict. For thirteen days, the world held its breath as John F. Kennedy and Nikita Khrushchev engaged in a high-stakes standoff that brought the planet to the brink of a thermonuclear exchange. The realization that a simple miscommunication or a low-level commander's panic could trigger the end of human civilization was a big concern for both leaders. The concern of Nuclear War directly birthed the "Hotline" between the Kremlin and the White House, moving the superpowers toward a model of crisis management. It proved that without a baseline of diplomatic stability, the risk of accidental war was unacceptably high, making Détente not just a preference, but a survival strategy.
2. Fear of nuclear war – Beyond specific crises, the general fear of nuclear war became a permanent fixture of global psychology, eventually manifesting as the doctrine of Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD). By the late 1960s, both the U.S. and the USSR had reached a point where neither could launch a first strike without being utterly destroyed in return. This "balance of terror" created a paradoxical incentive for peace; since military victory was no longer a viable outcome of war, the only way to "win" was to ensure that war never happened. This fear necessitated formal arms control agreements to manage the skyrocketing costs and risks of the arms race, leading to the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT). Détente, in this context, was the formalization of the realization that nuclear weapons had made traditional total war obsolete.
3. Increased Sino-Soviet differences – The Sino-Soviet split fundamentally altered the "bipolar" logic of the Cold War, as the ideological and territorial rivalry between the Soviet Union and China turned into open hostility. This internal rift within the communist world meant the Soviet Union could no longer focus solely on the West; it now faced a legitimate threat from its own neighbour to the east. To avoid the catastrophic scenario of a two-front war, the Kremlin was incentivized to lower the temperature of its conflict with the United States. Simultaneously, the U.S. saw a golden opportunity in "Triangular Diplomacy," where it could improve relations with both Moscow and Beijing to play them against each other. This geopolitical shift forced the USSR to the negotiating table, as they could not risk being isolated by a potential U.S.-China alliance.
4. The Rise of Soviet Global Parity – By the turn of the decade, the increased role of the Soviet Union and the Soviet Bloc in world politics meant that the West had to stop treating the USSR as an ideological aberration and start treating it as a permanent global power. The Soviet Union had achieved strategic parity, meaning its military might finally equalled that of the United States. For Soviet leaders like Leonid Brezhnev, Détente was a tool to gain international recognition of the USSR’s superpower status and to solidify its control over Eastern Europe. By seeking a "relaxed" atmosphere, the Soviet Bloc hoped to gain access to Western technology and grain markets, stabilizing its internal economy while the West aimed to integrate the Soviet Union into a predictable international system that reduced the chances of erratic aggression.
5. The Influence of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) – The Non-Aligned Movement provided a crucial moral and political "third way" that challenged the binary logic of the Cold War. Comprised of newly independent nations from the "Global South," NAM leaders argued that the superpower rivalry was a waste of global resources and a threat to the sovereignty of smaller nations. By refusing to join either bloc, NAM pressured the U.S. and the USSR to justify their actions to a global audience. This movement effectively "shamed" the superpowers into de-escalation, pushing the narrative that true global leadership required more than just military dominance. The existence of a large, neutral bloc meant that both the U.S. and the USSR had to compete for influence through diplomacy and economic aid rather than just proxy wars, fueling the transition toward Détente.
6. Failure of the U.S.A. in Vietnam War – The failure of the United States in the Vietnam War served as a massive blow to the "Containment" strategy that had dominated American foreign policy since 1947. The war proved that American military might had limits, especially in the face of nationalist movements, and it left the U.S. domestic economy and social fabric in tatters. With the American public increasingly hostile toward foreign interventions and the "Vietnam Syndrome" taking root in Congress, Washington was forced to scale back its global commitments. Détente became the primary vehicle for this retreat; by easing tensions with the Soviet Union, the U.S. could maintain its global influence through diplomatic "linkage" and treaties rather than through the blood and treasure of another ground war.

New Cold War

The "New Cold War" (roughly 1979–1985) was an intensive reawakening of tensions between the US and USSR, marking the abrupt collapse of 1970s détente. Triggered by the 1979 Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, this period saw escalated arms races, proxy wars, and severe diplomatic breakdown, largely fuelled by differing interpretations of détente, third-world conflicts, and increased security concerns.

Causes of New Cold War

There were many developments in international relations that gave a setback to détente and helped in re-originating Cold War:

1. Changes in the US Foreign Policy under President Reagan –

The American decision:

1. To re-secure the US status as number 1 power in world politics.
2. To reject Nixon-Kissinger view that the only alternative to détente was war.
3. To stop over-selling détente, gave a big blow to détente spirit.

2. Irresponsible Soviet View – The Reagan administration held the view that Soviet conduct in Angola, Middle-East, and UN was irresponsible and detrimental to the US interest and the spirit of détente.
3. The US attempts to cultivate relations with Eastern Europe and China, with a view to check Soviet influence - The US Foreign Policy even during 1970s involved the attempt to increase the division between China and Soviet Union, with a view to secure a strategic advantage vis-à-vis the Soviet Union by cultivating relations with China.
4. The US role in Nicaragua, El Salvador and Grenada – The US attempt to forcibly maintain its superior influence over these states was strongly opposed by soviets. They regarded it as renewed American attempts at the containment of the spread of communism.
5. Soviet intervention in Afghanistan – The soviet’s attempts at keeping leftists in power in Afghanistan and the subsequent soviet interventions in Afghanistan were regarded by the US as a big violation of détente which was designed to increase soviet power in the gulf region. America once again became convinced that the ultimate aim of soviet policy in the West Asia was to reach the warm waters of Persian Gulf. It was regarded as a serious threat to American interest in the region as well as to American relation with the gulf countries. The soviet action in Afghanistan definitely gave a big blow, almost a death blow to the détente of 1970s.
6. US policies designed to counter soviet influence – Apprehending a serious soviet threat to American interest and power in Asia, the Reagan administration decided: -

1. To strengthen its naval base at Diego Garcia by making it a nuclear base as well as the main base for organising and strengthening the defence and security of Persian Gulf.
2. To strengthen and arm Pakistan as a frontline state against threatened soviet expansionism in West Asia.
3. To organise and deploy rapid deployment force in Persian Gulf.
4. To strengthen Washington-Beijing-Islamabad-Tokyo cooperation with a view to counteract the soviet role in Asia and to check the growing Indi-Soviet and Soviet-Vietnam relations and Moscow-Kabul access.
5. To go in for the Strategic Defence Initiative Program, popularly known as Star War Program or the Militarization of Space Program.
6. To keep at bay, the SALT-II agreement.
7. To install perishing, cruising and MX missiles in Western Europe with a view to strengthen its security against soviet threat.
8. To go in for an increased production of more and more sophisticated weapons, to secure a superior position arms race and to refrain from Geneva talks on disarmaments.
1. To increase American power and influence in Indian Ocean.
10. To give extensive aid to Kenya and Somalia.
11. Boycott the Olympic Games in Moscow in 1980.

All these US policies were criticised by Soviet Union as these were policies designed to harm soviet interest and measures designed to revitalise Cold War in international relations.

7. Soviet Policies designed to check US influence in different parts of the globe –   Several soviet policies were strongly opposed by the Americans as these were regarded by them as policies designed for limiting US role in world politics. The following soviet policies were mainly responsible for inviting strong reaction from the USA: -

1. Soviet backed Cuba’s role in Angola.
2. Soviet intervention in Afghanistan and its decision to keep its forces in this strategically important area of Asia.
3. Soviet backed Cuba’s role in Ethiopia.
4. Presence of soviet brigade in Cuba.
5. Deployment of SS-20, new medium range soviet missiles in Eastern European countries.
6. Soviet help and support to leftists in Latin American states.
7. Increasing soviet influence in West Asia and growing friendship between Moscow and New Delhi and Moscow and Hanoi (Capital of Vietnam).
8. Soviet decision to strengthen its military base in Africa.
1. Increasing soviet influence in Indian Ocean.
10. Soviet policy of increasing its influence in West Asia and Gulf.

All these soviet policies were viewed by the Americans as dangerous developments which posed a serious danger to American interest in world politics in general and Asia, Africa and Latin America in particular.

Along with these factors, the failure of attempts towards disarmament, the destabilization of peace in West Asia as a result of the continued Iran-Iraq war, the failure of disarmament front, the failure of Geneva talks, the failure of two summit meetings between the US President Reagan and the Soviet Leader Mikhail Gorbachev, the increasing arms race between the two superpowers, the extensive militarisation of Pakistan by the US, the continued Soviet presence in Afghanistan, the Soviet plan for Asian security and American apprehension, inability of the rich nations to accommodate poor developing nations etc. all combined together to end the détente of the 1970s, and to bring back Cold War in international relations.

The continued rift between China and USSR added a new dimension to New Cold War. The emerging Washington-Beijing-Pindi-Tokyo Axis versus Moscow-Hanoi-Kabul-New Delhi Axis came as very dangerous developments.

The increased complexity of international relations resulted in ever increasing gap between North and South, the reduced role of the UNO, the inability of NAM to pursue the attainment of several desired objectives, all combined to give the New Cold War era a more dangerous outlook.

New Détente

Around 1985, the New Cold War diluted, leading humanity fully realise the danger and futility of the Cold War. Both superpowers once again decided to either withdraw from the Cold War or at least limit its scope. The welcome break came in the form of bold initiatives taken by the Soviet leader Gorbachev, acting under the concepts of Perestroika and Glasnost and respecting the crisis of world public opinion and the demands of non-alignment and third-world countries. The Soviet leader came forward to expect certain moves in the direction of arms control and disarmament. The well-recognised action on the part of the USA set the stage for a very positive development, the signing of the historic INF Treaty (Intermediate Range Nuclear Forces Treaty), under which both the USA and USSR agreed to destroy, under joint supervision, medium-range missiles which stood deployed in Europe. 

This historic agreement and its swift implementation brought about a positive and qualitative shift in international relations. The change got reflected in certain events – the end of the Iran-Iraq War, the Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan, etc.

Causes of New Détente

Major geopolitical shifts during the late 1980s (post-1985), which historians often refer to as the "new détente" or the end of the Cold War.

1. Four-Party Agreement Regarding Namibian Independence: On December 22, 1988, the Tripartite Accord was signed by Angola, Cuba, and South Africa (with US mediation), leading to Namibia’s independence and the withdrawal of Cuban troops from Angola.
2. Arms Cut Announced by the Soviet Union: Mikhail Gorbachev announced unilateral cuts of 500,000 troops and significant conventional arms reductions in his speech to the UN General Assembly on December 7, 1988.
3. Withdrawal of Vietnamese Troops from Cambodia: Vietnam completed the withdrawal of its troops from Cambodia in September 1989, facilitating the peace process.
4. Growing Possibilities of Unification of Korea: While the late 1980s saw heightened dialogue (e.g., South Korea's Nordpolitik policy), unification itself remained elusive. The 1988 Seoul Olympics allowed increased contact, but North Korea's 1987 bombing of an airliner and subsequent developments show that while talks grew, actual unification was not immediate.
5. Direct Talks Between USA and PLO: In December 1988, the US opened a direct dialogue with the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) after Yasser Arafat recognized Israel's right to exist.
6. Direct Dialogue Between Greek and Turkish Cypriot Leaders: Regular UN-mediated talks between the leaders of the two communities on the divided island occurred throughout the late 1980s, including a significant meeting in 1988.
7. New Faith in the UN’s Role in Crisis Management: The late 1980s marked a revival of the UN's peacekeeping role, specifically in Namibia, Afghanistan, and the Iran-Iraq war.
8. The New Delhi Declaration: The Delhi Declaration (1985, and subsequent declarations by the "Six Nation Initiative") was a significant call by non-aligned nations for nuclear disarmament, contributing to the climate of détente, although the specific "new détente" of 1985–1989 was more often driven by US-Soviet negotiations.

The above mentioned instances reflected fully that a new détente had emerged in international relations of post – 1985 years.

The new détente was successful in ending the Cold War era in international relations. It produced a welcome change in the international scenario of the post-1985 years. Within 4 years of its emergence, the world was successful in overthrowing the New Cold War in favour of peace and peaceful coexistence in International Relations. The collapse of the USSR in 1991 and the transformation affected in the international system, together with the spirit of new détente, helped humankind to come out from the New Cold War and to enter the age of peace, prosperity and development.

Q17. Discuss the concept, causes, and impact of decolonisation.

Ans. Decolonization refers to the process by which colonies gain independence from their colonial rulers and establish their own self-governing and sovereign nations.  It involves the political, social, and economic transformation of a colony into an independent state. 

Historically, decolonization occurred primarily during the 20th century when many European colonial powers relinquished their control over colonies in Africa, Asia, the Caribbean, and the Pacific. Decolonization was a significant global movement driven by various factors, including anti-colonial struggles, nationalist movements, changes in international relations, and a growing recognition of the right to self-determination.

When the United Nations was established in 1945, the organisation had 51 countries as its members. By 1995, UN celebrated 50 years of its existence and membership had gone up to 185 countries. Today, 193 countries are the members of United Nations. The emergence of large number of states that became UN members was mainly on account of the end of colonialism.

With the termination of European imperialism which started after World War – II, several new sovereign states came into existence in all parts of the world. The process of this change came to be described as decolonization. Most Asian countries became independent by the end of 1940s. While the American colony of Philippines had achieved independence in 1946, the process of decolonization started with India and last of the colonies, i.e., Namibia achieved independence from South Africa in 1990. 

Decolonization or the Disintegration of Western Colonial Empire had 2 broad components:

1. A demand by the subject people of the colonies supported by their freedom struggles for independence.
2. The mobility or unwillingness of the colonial power to retain their hold over the colonies.

One of the biggest changes that occurred after decolonisation was multiplication of sovereign states. Most of the process of decolonisation was completed in about 25 years of time. Though, some countries like Namibia had to struggle for some more time.

The period of decolonization was dominated by cold war. Therefore, the new states were bound to be influenced by the prevailing international environment. As the world was divided into two power blocs, the new states were expected to join either of the two.

Many countries remained non-aligned and refused to be in either of the two blocs and came to be treated as the Third World. Thus, the process of decolonisation directly influenced the third world.

Key Aspects

The decolonization process typically involved the following key aspects:

1. Political Independence - Decolonization involved the transfer of political power from colonial rulers to local governments or nationalist movements.  This often included the establishment of new constitutions, national institutions, and systems of governance. 
2. End of Colonial Rule - Decolonization marked the end of colonial rule and the withdrawal of colonial administrations and institutions. This allowed the newly independent nations to establish their own systems of government and policies that reflected the aspirations and needs of their people. 
3. Self-Determination - Self-determination, the principle that people have the right to determine their own political status and freely pursue their economic, social, and cultural development, was a central principle of decolonization. It recognized the right of colonized peoples to determine their own future and shape their own destinies. 
4. Economic Challenges - Decolonization often brought economic challenges as newly independent nations inherited colonial economic structures that were geared towards the interests of the colonizers. These countries faced the task of building their own economies, addressing issues of poverty, inequality, and developing sustainable economic systems. 
5. Nation-Building - Decolonization involved the process of nation-building, as newly independent countries sought to establish their national identities, promote unity among diverse ethnic, cultural, and linguistic groups, and build inclusive societies. 
6. Global Impact - Decolonization had a significant impact on the global geopolitical landscape. It reshaped international relations, led to the formation of new states, and increased the diversity of voices in global forums such as the United Nations.

Causes of Decolonization

Decolonization was driven by a combination of factors that contributed to the dismantling of colonial empires and the granting of independence to colonies. Here are some key causes of decolonization:

1. Nationalism and Independence Movements - Nationalist movements emerged in many colonized regions, fuelled by a desire for self-determination and political independence. Local leaders and intellectuals mobilized people around a shared sense of national identity, advocating for the end of colonial rule and the establishment of independent nations. 
2. World Wars and Global Shifts - The world wars, especially World War II, had a significant impact on the process of decolonization. These conflicts weakened colonial powers and exposed the contradictions of maintaining vast colonial empires while fighting for freedom and democracy. The war also provided opportunities for nationalist movements to gain support and leverage their demands for independence. 
3. International Pressure and Human Rights - The United Nations, established after World War II, played a crucial role in advancing the principles of self-determination and human rights. The UN Charter emphasized the right of all peoples to determine their political status and pursue economic, social, and cultural development. This international pressure pushed colonial powers to reassess their colonial policies and grant independence to their colonies.
4. Economic and Political Changes - Economic factors also played a role in decolonization. The economic costs of maintaining colonies became increasingly burdensome for colonial powers, especially as they faced economic challenges at home. Additionally, the rise of new economic powers and the Cold War rivalry created new geopolitical dynamics, prompting colonial powers to reconsider their colonial holdings. 
5. Resistance and Anti-Colonial Movements - Colonized populations actively resisted colonial rule through various means, including protests, strikes, armed uprisings, and civil disobedience. Anti-colonial movements, such as the Indian independence movement led by Mahatma Gandhi, the African National Congress in South Africa, and the Viet Minh in Vietnam, gained significant support and garnered international attention. These movements increased pressure on colonial powers to address the demands for independence. 
6. Changing International Norms - The Post-World War II era saw a shift in global norms and attitudes towards colonialism. The concept of colonialism came under scrutiny as human rights, equality, and self-determination became central principles in international relations. This changing global perspective delegitimized colonialism and created a conducive environment for decolonization efforts. 

The Process of Decolonisation

The process of decolonisation refers to the dismantling of colonial empires and the granting of independence to former colonies. While the specific process varied from colony to colony, some common elements and strategies were involved.

The process of decolonisation coincided with the new Cold War between the Soviet Union and the United States. It was often affected by superpower competition and had a definite impact on the evolution of that competition.

• Emergence of Nationalist Movements: Nationalist sentiments began to grow in many colonised regions as local populations became more aware of their cultural identity, economic exploitation, and the desire for self-governance. Intellectuals, political leaders, and grassroots organisations played crucial roles in mobilising these movements.
• Political Mobilisation: Nationalist leaders and organisations rallied support among the local population through various means, such as political parties, trade unions, student organisations, and armed resistance movements. They sought to unite people around a common national identity and articulate their grievances against colonial rule.
• Resistance and Protests: Colonised populations engaged in a range of resistance activities, including peaceful protests, civil disobedience, strikes, boycotts, and demonstrations. These acts of resistance aimed to challenge colonial authority, demand political rights, and highlight the injustices of colonial rule.
• International Support: The decolonisation process was influenced by changing international dynamics and the rise of anti-colonial sentiment worldwide. The United Nations, established in 1945, played a significant role in promoting self-determination and condemning colonialism.
• Negotiations and Reforms: In some cases, colonial powers recognised the growing demand for independence and initiated negotiations with nationalist leaders. Reforms and concessions were sometimes granted, such as limited self-government or increased political representation.
• Independence and Transfer of Power: Ultimately, colonial powers had to decide to grant independence or face prolonged conflicts. The process of transferring power involved negotiations, constitutional arrangements, and the establishment of new governments. Independence was often followed by the drafting of new constitutions, the formation of national institutions, and the transition to self-rule.

After the end of the Second World War, numerous regions remained under European colonial dominion. However, in the subsequent two decades, many Asian and African colonies successfully gained their independence, becoming sovereign nations. Despite this newfound freedom, these countries faced substantial challenges such as poverty, limited resources, and the lingering effects of prolonged colonial rule, which hindered their economic and societal progress.

Key Historical Events and Movements

The process of decolonisation was a complex and multifaceted one, with different countries experiencing it in different ways. However, there were a number of significant events and movements that helped to shape the process of decolonisation.

• Defeat of Russia - In the first decade of the twentieth century, the nationalists posed a challenge in Asia and Africa. In 1905, the remarkable ability of Japan, a relatively small Asian country, to decisively defeat Russia, a major European power, served as a great source of encouragement.
• Second World War - The war had a profound impact on the colonial world, as it led to the weakening of the European powers and the rise of nationalist movements in the colonies. The war also led to the formation of the United Nations, which played a major role in the decolonisation process.
• Bandung Conference in 1955 - It was a meeting of Asian and African leaders who discussed the challenges of decolonisation and promoted cooperation between their countries. The Bandung Conference was a major turning point in the decolonisation process, as it helped to galvanise support for the independence of the colonies.

Q18. Critically evaluate India-US relations.

Ans. Since India’s independence, ties with the United States have weathered Cold War–era distrust and estrangement over India’s nuclear program. Relations have warmed in recent years and cooperation has strengthened across a range of economic and political areas.

The Indo-US bilateral ties can be traced from the era of cold war politics. As India was always closer to Soviet Russia, USA had taken a stand against India on various occasions. The entire scope of Indo-USA relations was based upon two contentious issues:

1. On the issue of Kashmir and USA standing with Pakistan.
2. On the issue of Nuclear Weapons and technology which India wanted to possess.

From 1947 till early 1960

The Indo-US relation was a victim of Kashmir issue especially when USA and Pakistan signed SEATO (South East Asia Treaty Organisation) and CENTO (Central Treaty Organisation) agreements. In this period the only bright spot between India and USA was the PL-480 programme under which USA supplied foodgrains to India at a very cheap cost.

Another deadly dimension of their bilateral relation was the issue of terrorism, where America was less compassionate on India’s call on cross border terror in Jammu and Kashmir.

Bilateral Relations

Bilateral relations between any two countries can be multi-faceted. Let’s discuss India-US relations with reference to some major aspects:

Political

India and USA, both are founding members of the UNO. Both are largest contributors to the UN Peacekeeping Force. USA supports India’s candidature for the permanent seat in UNSC.

Economy

USA is India’s second largest trading partner.

• USA’s imports from India largely include – cotton, textiles, pearl, gemstones, jewellery and agriculture allied products.
• India’s imports from the USA include – hardware, civilian air telecommunications, chemicals and fertilizers.

Institutionalisation of India-US bilateral economic cooperation by the creation of US-India Trade Policy Forum. The TPF is co-chaired by the Indian Minister of Commerce & Industry and the U.S. Trade Representative. The 14th Ministerial-level meeting of the TPF was held in New Delhi in January 2024, with a focus on enhancing trade ties and addressing concerns related to bilateral trade. 

Establishment of India-US CEO Forum for the promotion of business to business cooperation. Forum stands as indispensable catalyst for economic cooperation between India and US; serves as key advisory body to India-US Commercial Dialogue

GSP (Generalised Systems of Preferences) – The GSP is a preferential trade program where developed countries offer reduced or zero tariffs to developing countries on a wide range of products. India gets the benefit of GSP which the USA offers for developing and under developed economies of the world, where tariff barriers are removed on selected items of imports. However, India does not currently benefit from the GSP provision. The US revoked India’s GSP status in 2019.

Defence and Security Dimension

• Joint Naval Exercise (Malabar) - The Malabar exercise is a multilateral naval exercise primarily involving the navies of India, the United States, Japan, and Australia. It focuses on enhancing interoperability, fostering mutual understanding, and addressing shared maritime challenges in the Indo-Pacific region. The exercise, which began in 1992 as a bilateral drill between India and the US, has evolved into a key event for these four nations. 
• Rim of the Pacific (RIMPAC) Exercise - It's a major multinational naval exercise hosted by the US Pacific Fleet in Hawaii. India's first official participation in the RIMPAC exercise (Rim of the Pacific Exercise) was in 2014. While India participated as an observer in previous editions (2006, 2010, and 2012), 2014 marked the first time an Indian warship, the INS Sahyadri, was part of the exercise. 

Military Exercise

• Yudh Abhyas – joint military exercise being conducted annually since 2004 between the two nations. It is designed to promote cooperation between the two militaries while sharing training, cultural exchanges, and building joint operating skills. YUDH ABHYAS 2024 held at Mahajan Field Firing Range, Rajasthan.
• Exercise Vajra Prahar - It is a joint exercise conducted between Indian Army and US Army Special Forces. It aims at sharing best practices and experiences in areas such as joint mission planning and operational tactics.
• Cope India – Joint Air Force Exercise between Indian Air Force (IAF) and United States Air Force (USAF). Exercise Cope India began in 2004 as a fighter training exercise held at Air Station Gwalior, India. The exercise has evolved to incorporate subject matter expert exchanges, air mobility training, airdrop training and large-force exercises, in addition to fighter-training exercises. The exercise focuses on enhancing U.S – Indian mutual cooperation by building on existing capabilities, aircrew tactics and force employment.
• Red Flag Exercise – A US Air Force led Exercise conducted among the North American countries and Europe. India has also been made a partner to the Red Flag Air Force Joint Exercise. The Indian Air Force (IAF) first participated in the Red Flag exercise in 2008.
• Obama visit in 2010 – USA offered the joint development of defence technology. It was first of its kind where USA for the first time was signing such an agreement with a developing country like India. President Obama called the relationship with India “one of the defining partnerships of the 21^st century.”
• The United States is the third largest defence equipment supplier to India, after Russia and France, 1^st and 2^nd respectively.
• Security – There is a provision of an institution named US-India Homeland Security Dialogue which has to discuss the issue of terrorism and extremism and their counter strategy between the two nations. The Indo-US homeland security dialogue was launched in 2010 as the mechanism to a sequel to the signing of the India-US counter-terrorism initiative. First Homeland Security Dialogue was held in 2011.

Cultural Cooperation

There are millions of Indian origin people who live in the USA and the Indian diaspora has played a significant role in influencing the perception American Govt. towards India. Thousands of doctors, engineers and scientists working in NASA are of Indian origin.

Some eminent personalities in the US of the Indian origin include -

• Satya Nadella: CEO of Microsoft.
• Sundar Pichai: CEO of Alphabet (Google's parent company).
• Shantanu Narayen: CEO of Adobe.
• Kamala Harris: Former Vice President of the United States.

Foreign Account Tax Compliance Act (FATCA)

• Signed in July, 2015.
• A mutual effort to combat tax evasion.
• Under its provisions both the countries will exchange information to detect or discourage offshore tax evasion.

Key Irritants in India – US relationship

With all things going smoothly, there are some hurdles here and there, ne it anything. Similarly, some key irritants in India – US bilateral relations are as follows:

1. Food Security Law of India – as per this law, the govt. will procure food grains in a huge quantity, which according to the USA is going to violate the de minimis subsidies of the WTO provisions. As per de minimis a developing state cannot offer subsidy more than 10% of the value of total produce. This issue was raised in the WTO meeting where India and USA were at loggerheads and final there was an agreement on developing a permanent ‘Peace Clause’ in the context of food subsidy. This was accepted by all the WTO members.
2. USA Protectionist Policies – with the downfall of global economy from 2008, the Obama Govt. adopted a protectionist policy. The USA anti-outsourcing policy was announced in 2009 under which they immediately reduced the number of H1B Visas from 1.25 lakhs to 65,000 only. The same policy is being followed by Donald Trump. He has adopted “America First” Policy in which the US based companies are being directed to first offer jobs for the Americans.
3. Global Climate Change Issue – the two nations differ in their global commitment to reduce CO2 emission. As USA wants India to also cut down the CO2 emission on the lines of the developed countries, India differs on this view and suggest more liability on the US and other developed countries in terms of cutting down CO2 emission.

India–US relationship in present times (2025)

The India–United States relationship in 2025 stands at a strategic high point, marked by growing cooperation across defence, trade, technology, and geopolitics. The partnership, rooted in shared democratic values, is evolving into a key pillar of the Indo-Pacific security architecture and global governance.

Key Areas of Cooperation -

1. Strategic & Defence Ties - The two nations are deepening military cooperation through joint exercises (like Yudh Abhyas, Malabar) and defence technology sharing. The Initiative on Critical and Emerging Technologies (iCET) is a cornerstone of collaboration in AI, quantum computing, and space. India's role as a Major Defence Partner has led to co-development deals, including drone technology and jet engines.
2. Economic & Trade Relations - Bilateral trade crossed $200 billion, with growing synergy in digital trade, pharmaceuticals, and clean energy. Efforts are underway to reduce trade barriers and promote supply chain resilience, especially in semiconductors and rare earths.
3. Technology & Innovation - The U.S. and India are fostering deeper cooperation in semiconductors, telecom (5G/6G), and cybersecurity. Indian talent and tech firms remain vital to the U.S. innovation ecosystem.
4. People-to-People Ties - Over 4.5 million Indian-Americans play a vital role in strengthening bilateral ties across academia, entrepreneurship, and policymaking. Student exchange and higher education linkages are robust, with the U.S. being a top destination for Indian students.
5. Global & Regional Issues - Both countries align on maintaining a free, open, and inclusive Indo-Pacific, with counterbalancing strategies toward China. Collaboration extends to climate action, pandemic preparedness, and defending democratic norms globally.

Challenges

1. Trade disputes, visa concerns (especially H-1B), and differences on global political stances (e.g., Russia–Ukraine) remain areas of friction.
2. India’s strategic autonomy sometimes contrasts with U.S. expectations in multilateral alignments.

Conclusion

The India–US relationship is maturing into a comprehensive global partnership, driven by mutual interests and converging strategic goals. As the geopolitical landscape shifts, both nations are positioning their alliance as a key force for regional stability and technological leadership.