Political Science - II : Previous Year Questions (2017)

PART – A

Q1. Define International Relations.

Ans. International Relations (IR) is the study of interactions between sovereign states, non-state actors (like NGOs and corporations), and international organizations. It explores the dynamics of power, conflict, cooperation, and foreign policy, analysing how these relationships shape global governance, security, economics, and law.

Q2. What do you mean by collective security?

Ans. Collective security is there to manage national power. It is based on the principle that states collectively achieve peace and security in case of violation by any one state or states. It is a device of power management and its purpose is to maintain international peace and security by collective efforts of all the states.

Q3. Define Diplomacy.

Ans. Diplomacy is the process and practice of communication and negotiation between actors in international system with the aim of achieving the goals and resolving their conflicts and disputes. It involves various method and tools such as dialogue, persuasion, compromise, and coercion to influence and shape behaviour and outcomes of other states.

Q4. What do you mean by 'détente'?

Ans. Détente is a French word which means relaxation of tensions. It was used to describe the normalisation of relations between the USA and the USSR in international relations. During the 1970s, both superpowers decided to overcome the cold war and relax their relations into the era of détente. But a new cold war was started on early 1980s. Fortunately, the new cold war got replaced by new détente in 1987. The new détente played a big role in ending the cold war in international relations.

Q5. What do you mean by New Cold war?

Ans. The "New Cold War" (roughly 1979–1985) was an intensive reawakening of tensions between the US and USSR, marking the abrupt collapse of 1970s détente. Triggered by the 1979 Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, this period saw escalated arms races, proxy wars, and severe diplomatic breakdown, largely fuelled by differing interpretations of détente, third-world conflicts, and increased security concerns.

Q6. What is unipolarity?

Ans. Unipolarity in international relations refers to a power structure where one state or actor holds significantly greater power and influence than other states. In a unipolar system, the dominant power possesses unrivalled military, economic, and political capabilities, giving it a significant advantage over other actors in shaping global affairs. 

Q7. What do you mean by third world?

Ans. The concept of the "Third World" originated during the Cold War era and referred to a group of countries that were not aligned with either the capitalist "First World” (led by the United States and its allies) or the communist "Second World" (led by the Soviet Union and its allies). The term "Third World" was initially used to describe countries that were newly independent from colonial rule and faced common challenges of poverty, underdevelopment, and political instability.

Q8. Meaning of MNC's?

Ans. A multinational corporation (MNC), also known as a multinational enterprise (MNE), is a company that operates and has business activities in multiple countries. These corporations have a presence in various countries beyond their home country and conduct business operations, such as manufacturing, sales, and services, in multiple locations worldwide.

Q9. Write down the full form of BRICS.

Ans. Full form for BRICS is Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa. It is an acronym for a group of major emerging economies that function as a political and diplomatic forum to enhance economic cooperation and influence in global governance.

Q10. Write two limitations of National Power.

Ans. Two limitations of National Power are:

1. Collective Security Principle – Collective security is there to manage national power. It is based on the principle that states collectively achieve peace and security in case of violation by any one state or states. It is a device of power management and its purpose is to maintain international peace and security by collective efforts of all the states.
2. Disarmament of Arms Control – This is a mechanism to limit national power. Arms control refers to reduction or control arms race through international agreements and policies. Disarmament means abolishing any ammunition possessed till date.

PART – B

Q11. Explain the major determinants of foreign policy.

Ans. Foreign policy is a set of strategic principles and actions adopted by a state to manage its relationships with other nations. Its primary purpose is to protect and advance national interests such as security, economic prosperity, and the well-being of its citizens, within the complex environment of global interdependence.

Determinants of Foreign Policy

The foreign policy of a country is determined by the number of elements which are influenced by various factors. The determinants vary in terms of its importance as per the circumstances. In general, the basic determinants of foreign policy can be broadly classified into two categories – Internal Factors and External Factors.

Internal Factors:

1. Geography – It is a permanent and stable factor which determines the states’ foreign policy. Geography includes location, size, topography, state boundaries, climate, population, natural resources, etc. of a nation. The size of the nation influences the psychological and operational environment within which policy makers and public respond. Large size of the state cannot be considered as an independent determinant as state power is increased by large, it has the capacity to accommodate large population and contains varied supply of natural resources. The geostrategic location of the state is also an important factor in policy formulation. Climatic conditions of the state are another geographical feature that plays a crucial role in the determination of a state’s foreign policy. Position of natural resources increases bargaining capacity of a state internationally and helps in foreign policy choices, but it must be stated that effect of geography has lost much lost much of its importance due to the recent developments of science and technology.
2. History and Culture – History of a nation has its influence on foreign policy making. Political tradition of a nation is rooted in its history and culture. The basic foreign policy objective is guided considerably by the historical and cultural tradition of the state. For example: many developing countries including India have strongly taken stand for anti-imperialism, anti-colonialism, and anti-racism, due to the bitter experience of colonialism, imperialism, and racism.
3. National Capacity – It includes military strength, economic development and technological progress of the nation. The economic position of the nations in terms of Gross National Product (GNP) which enables a nation to understand its ability to utilise its natural and human resources, also helped a nation in foreign policy choices. The highly developed countries in terms of economy, technology, and military have the advantage in gaining desired objective in their relations with economically and technologically weaker countries. Developing countries due to their dependence on the developed countries for capital, technology and military research and development loses the power to formulate an independent foreign policy.
4. Public Opinion –  It is not possible for the government of a state to ignore or go against the public opinion for long. In democratic state especially, the government cannot dare to ignore the importance of the public opinion in both domestic and foreign policies. Public opinion has gained more importance in the world at present. Public opinion in case of foreign policy, sets limitations on choices of policies and constraints in policy execution.
5. Ideology – Ideology of a state generally influences the foreign policy of a state so far as it determines the goals to be achieved by the state in international relations. The emergence of 2 types of foreign policy in the post-World War – II period is largely due to the ideological conflict between USSR and USA. Generally, there is a lot of affinity in the policy of states professing a particular ideology and feelings of enmity among the states propounding other ideologies.
6. Social and Political Structures – The foreign policy of a state is influenced to great extent by the nature of political system and ruling elite. For Example: foreign policy of a democratic state would be different from the foreign policy of an authoritarian state. Whenever there is a sudden change in the government of the state, it leads to change in course of foreign policy in the state.
7. Role of Policy Makers: Attitude of the policy makers also determine the foreign policy. Foreign policy is based significantly on the leadership qualities as it determines the strength and direction of foreign policy of the state. It is very strongly related to psychological traits, personality, and willingness of the leaders in the formulation of foreign policy. There is major role played by ruling elite and the decision makers and in accordance with their perception of reality. The policy makers take due note of the relevant values, relevant sectors of the environment, and accordingly determine the objectives of foreign policy. The decision makers interpret the national income and also perceive the external environment by formulating the foreign policy. The impact of views and personalities of the ruling elite on foreign policy formulation is quite natural. Foreign policy is however, not the result of role played by few leaders only. It is also the interplay of various other determinants and pressures of bureaucrats.

External Factors:

External environment is also very necessary while formulating foreign policy of a scale. International laws, treaties, agreements, facts, international and regional organisations considerably influence and also limits the making of foreign policy of the state.

The external determinants include:

1. International Organisations – International organisations such as the UN and others aimed at maintaining world peace and order and international law. UNO’s activities and other agencies such as IMF, World Bank, SAARC, ASEAN, etc. also have profound influence on the foreign policy formation of the state.
2. World Public Opinion – Like domestic public opinion, world public opinion has a strong influence on foreign policy making. No nation can dare to go against the world’s public opinion or challenge it. World public opinion has its impact on various issues such as human rights, war, peace, environment, and this is mainly due to increasing consciousness among people.
3. Interest of other state – While formulating foreign policy, a state has to take into account the interest of other member states as well.  If a state tries to base its foreign policy on self-interest, it would not only bring the state in conflict with other state but also will make the interest of other states impossible to meet.

Q12. Discuss the theory of Balance of Power.

Ans. In international relations, BOP is defined as the distribution of equal powers among the nations. When the power is more or less equally distributed, then no state can eliminate others and no state feels threatened.

Balance of Power as described by some eminent personalities:

• Sidney Fay describes it as just equilibrium so that none of the states become strong enough to exert its will or force on another state.
• Inis Claude explains it as, “a system in which nations regulate their power relations without any interference by any big power.

The logic behind BOP theory is that there is no world government. And each state has to rely on its own resources and strategies to prevent being attacked from another. So, when a nation faces threat from a powerful country, it either mobilises its own resources or gets into alliance with other states, so as to balance power.

Nature of Balance of Power

Following are some points describing nature of Balance of Power:

1. Temporary and Unstable – BOP is short lived and countries constantly change their alliances and allegiances to serve their national interest.
2. Requires active intervention – BOP is not a gift of nature. It is to be built and maintained with active intervention from political leaders.
3. War tests the efficacy of BOP – BOP prevents the outbreak of war and if a war happens, BOP is broken.
4. Not a device of peace – BOP happens because of the volatile international situation. It is no guarantee of peace.
5. Big powers are the main players – Strong powers are the main players in creating and maintaining BOP, whereas small powers are either allied parties or spectators, or victims in the play.
6. Requires multiple states – For BOP to happen, it requires multiple states to maintain power relations.
7. National interest is the priority – It can be adopted by any state and national interest is the basis for deciding it.

Methods of Balance of Power:

There are various methods of Balance of Power. Some are as follows: -

1. Compensation – It is mainly territorial compensation. A state gets divided or annexed if it is considered dangerous for the balance. Colonial powers used their methods to divide the territories amongst themselves if there was a threat to their colonial possessions and to balance among them. Prior to World War – I, European imperial powers divided and caved out new borders of small states, especially in the Eastern Europe and the Balkans.
2. Alliances and Counter Alliances – A group of nations enter into alliance to counter the threat and secure their position, and enhance their power in international system. Usually, a formation of an alliance leads to counter alliance. During cold war, USA formed NATO, SEATO, CENTO and Soviet Union formed Warsaw pact.
3. Intervention and Non – intervention - It’s a dictatorial method and carried out to change or maintain as desired situation in a country. USSR’s intervention in Afghanistan, American intervention in Cuba, North Korea, Vietnam, Iraq are few examples.
4. Divide and Rule – It’s a diverse measure to control and weaken the opponent. For example: China has been trying to breach or beak the unity among the ASEAN nations, so that they do not stand united against its aggressive moves in the South China Sea.
5. Buffer Zones – These are neutral areas that separate two big powers which are generally adversaries. Each superpower then tries to exert influence on the buffer zone and take its control leading to struggle between the two big powers in the neutral zone.
6. Armaments and Disarmaments – To secure themselves in the international system, countries compete in arms race by accumulating weapons for their defence. This can be dangerous to world peace and security, and can lead to war. Currently, disarmament has gained traction where countries are asked to reduce and gradually eliminate the use of weapons as defence and offense mechanism. Treaties like Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT), Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons, asks for banning weapons.
7. Balancer – This concept is used less frequently now, given the unipolarity or mutli-polarity syndrome in the world order. But earlier, Britain played the role of a balancer in Europe. A balancer plays a neutral role and is not allied to any of the contending party. It negotiates and mediates between the two, so as to keep balance.

Q13. Describe the interrelationship between Foreign Policy and diplomacy.

Ans. In the study of International Relations, the terms foreign policy and diplomacy are frequently used interchangeably; however, they represent distinct components of a state's international activity. Understanding the nuances between the two is essential for grasping how states interact on the global stage.

Conceptual Distinctions: Substance vs. Method

The most fundamental distinction lies in their nature: Foreign policy is the substance, while diplomacy is the process.

• Foreign Policy: This represents the "what" of international relations. It is a set of strategic goals, principles, and national requirements formulated by a state to protect its interests. As Sir Harold Nicholson noted, it is a "general conception of national requirements."
• Diplomacy: This is the "how." It encompasses the techniques, negotiations, and communications used to implement those strategies. It is the tactical agency through which a state pursues its objectives through dialogue and agreement rather than through coercion or conflict.

Implementation and Agency

Foreign policy acts as the rule-making body, establishing the trajectory of a nation’s external affairs. In contrast, diplomacy is the rule-application body, serving as the practical instrument for day-to-day execution.

While the Head of State or Government is typically responsible for the formulation of policy, the diplomatic corps (ambassadors, envoys, and foreign service officers) is responsible for its conduct.

Key Differences

The Dynamics of Foreign Policy Formulation

Foreign policy is not created in a vacuum; it is an expression of a state's internal health and external pressures. Several factors influence its development:

• Internal Stability: The quality of leadership, economic strength, and social cohesion directly impact the firmness of a state's foreign policy.
• National Interest: Every state seeks to improve its domestic conditions by fostering beneficial relations with others. This is the primary driver of policy.
• Adaptability: In an unpredictable global environment, foreign policy must be reflexive. It involves a constant cycle of action and reaction as states adapt to the opportunities or threats presented by others.

Foreign Policy vs. International Politics

It is important to distinguish foreign policy from international politics.

• International Politics refers to the broader, systemic interaction between various states, governed by international law and global power dynamics.
• Foreign Policy is state-centric; it refers specifically to the goals and planned programs of a single state as it navigates those broader international interactions.

Modern Transparency and Coordination

In the contemporary era, the "myth of the state secret" has largely eroded. Foreign policies are now subject to public scrutiny, academic analysis, and media debate. For a state to be successful, there must be unity of action. This means that all diplomatic maneuvers, public statements by Foreign Ministers, and international agreements must remain strictly aligned with the overarching national interest.

Conclusion

Ultimately, diplomacy is the specialized skill set, characterized by tact, negotiation, and mediation, that allows a nation to achieve its foreign policy goals. While foreign policy provides the vision, diplomacy provides the path, ensuring that a state’s national interests are pursued through sophisticated engagement in the global arena.

Q14. Discuss the meaning and causes of New colonisation.

Ans. Neo-colonialism refers to the continued economic, political, and cultural dominance of former colonial powers and other developed countries over former colonies and developing nations, despite their formal independence. It is characterized by indirect forms of control and exploitation, often through economic mechanisms and unequal power dynamics.

Neo-Colonialism is best described as “the survival of the colonial system in spite of formal recognition of political independence in emerging countries which became the victim of indirect and subtle form of domination by political, economic, social and military and technological forces.”

The mechanisms of neo-colonialism are designed to serve the interest of continuation of economic dependence of former colonies and by the former colonial powers. This is ensured by the integration of the dependent countries into colonial economic blocks through capital investments, loans, aids, unequal exchange and finances directly controlled by the colonial powers.

Causes of Emergence of Neo-Colonialism

The emergence of neo-colonialism can be attributed to a combination of historical, economic, and political factors. Here are some key causes that have contributed to its emergence:

1. Colonial Legacy - The historical legacy of colonialism laid the foundation for neo-colonialism. Former colonial powers established economic and political systems that continued to favour their interests even after formal independence. They maintained control over key sectors, resources, and markets, perpetuating economic and political dependency.
2. Economic Interests - The pursuit of economic interests by developed countries is a significant driver of neo-colonialism. Developed nations seek to secure access to natural resources, cheap labour, and new markets in developing countries. They utilize economic mechanisms such as unfair trade practices, unequal investment flows, and debt dependency to maintain control and extract wealth from these nations.
3. Geopolitical Strategies - Neo-colonialism can also be driven by geopolitical strategies of developed nations. They may seek to maintain spheres of influence, strategic military bases, and political control in regions rich in resources or of strategic importance. This allows them to project power and protect their national security interests.
4. International Financial Institutions - International financial institutions, such as the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF), play a role in perpetuating neo-colonialism. Conditions imposed by these institutions as part of loan agreements often prioritize economic policies that align with the interests of developed countries, leading to the erosion of national sovereignty and exacerbating economic dependency.
5. Political Interference - Developed countries exert political influence and interference in the affairs of developing nations to safeguard their interests. This can involve supporting or undermining governments, influencing elections, or promoting policies that align with their own objectives rather than the welfare of the local population. Political interference helps maintain control and perpetuate neo-colonial relationships.
6. Technological Advantages - Developed countries often possess superior technological capabilities, which they use to their advantage in neo-colonial relationships. They control advanced technologies, patents, and intellectual property rights, creating barriers for developing nations to access and develop their own technological capabilities. This perpetuates dependency on developed nations for technology transfer and innovation.
7. Information and Media Dominance - Developed countries, through their dominance in information and media outlets, shape narratives and influence public opinion globally. This allows them to promote their own perspectives, values, and interests, further solidifying their influence and control over developing nations.

PART – C

Q15. Discuss the major emerging trends in International Relations.

Ans. Following are the trends that emerged with time in the context of international relations:

1. The End of European Dominance – Before or during World War – II, Europe was a very powerful nation both economically and on military basis. It held supremacy all over the world. But after the end of the World War – II, its supremacy gets destroyed because it faced huge economic loss as world war was mainly by Europe. Along with this, independence movements among the colonies of Europe got momentum and its colonisation got weak and Europe’s supremacy shifted to the USA and the USSR.
2. Advent of Nuclear Warfare – On 6^th August 1945, a bomb was dropped on Hiroshima, and on 9^th August 1945, a bomb was dropped on Nagasaki in Japan. This led to Japan’s surrender and the end of second world war. Other nations also started to create new atomic bombs, like the USA and USSR, which were in conflict with each other. France, China, India, and Pakistan started nuclear testing. This increased the danger of disaster in the world.
3. Awakening of nations of Asia and Africa – The awakening of independence struggles in Asia and Africa posed challenges to colonial rule. After the Word War – II, Britain became weaker, making it weak administratively and militarily. Suddenly, there was an increase in membership of the United Nations (UNO), which reached the present number of 193.
4. Expansion of Communism – Countries like Germany, China, and Italy saw the expansion of communism. Other countries, like India were under the influence of the USSR.
5. Military Alliances – After World War - II, new military alliances emerged in the world such as NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organisation), led by the USA, in 1949. Its main aim was to stop the expansion of communism. In response, the USSR signed the Warsaw Pact in 1955. Its main aim was to provide protection from the atrocities of NATO. Another military alliance was SEATO (South East Asian Treaty Organisation), which was formed by South East Asian Nations in 1954 in collaboration with the USA. There was another military alliance named as CENTO (Central Treaty Organisation) formed by USA in 1955.
6. Advent of Cold War – The result of World War - II was seen in the form of Cold War.  The USA and the USSR were majorly involved in the cold war. The USA supported capitalism, while the USSR supported socialism and communism. All means were used to downgrade one another without the use of arms and ammunition.
7. Non-Alignment – After World War - II, many countries got independence. These newly independent countries had the option, whether to join USA or USSR. They joined neither of them and adopted the policy of non-alignment. These were nations that supported equal peace and world stability. The Non Alignment Movement (NAM) emerged in 1961 at Belgrade, led by Nasser of Egypt, Nehru of India, and Tito of Yugoslavia.
8. End of Imperialism and Communism – Imperialism became a trend in the 16^th century and continued until the Word War – II. Colonial nations started growing weaker, and nations became independent. International politics became global politics, and the focal point spread to various nations in Asia, Latin America, etc. With the decrease in European military and power, other superpowers emerged.
9. Decrease in the number of superpowers and emergence of new powers – Before and during World War - II, the number of superpowers were more in general. Every country of Europe like Germany, France, Spain was a superpower. After World War - II, the superpowers of the European continent decreased, and only two superpowers remained in the world – USA and USSR.  With the ever changing and evolving global scenario, new powers emerged in the 21^st century, like India, Brazil, and China.
10. Shift from Bipolarity to Multi Centralism – From 1945 to 1989, there were two superpowers. Now, many nations have nuclear power. Even if they are not nuclear powers, they have other form of power, such as economic and political influence.
11. Increase in importance of 3^rd world countries – Third world countries now have a voice in international politics. They have organised themselves in many ways, like SAARC and ASEAN.
12. North-South Conflict - Carbon emission is a major problem between the North and South. Most nations in the North are developed, while the south consists of either developing nations or underdeveloped nations. Northern Hemisphere countries try to dominate the Southern Hemisphere countries. But nowadays, southern countries are also increasing their power and influencing the world politics, international trade etc. due to which conflict takes place between the two.
13. Increase in the number of members in UNO – The members of the UNO increased from 51 to 193. The number of developing nations is greater. Permanent members of the UNSC are allied nations. Now, there is demand by developing countries to become permanent members.
14. Neo - Colonialism – It is a relatively new and growing concept. Nowadays, countries are not making other countries their colonies directly, rather they are making them their colonies by way of political means, or economic means such as by having a control over trade or market. It is called neo-colonialism.
15. Global Terrorism – Terrorism has been on a rise in the whole world. It is not limited to a particular country now. It greatly affects the relations among countries.

Q16. Examine Indo-Us Relations in present context. (Here in context of 2026)

Ans. The India–U.S. relationship in 2026 has transitioned from a period of "cautious engagement" to a Comprehensive Global Strategic Partnership. While the relationship is anchored in unprecedented technological and defence integration, it is also navigating a complex phase of trade protectionism and geopolitical recalibration.

Strategic and Defence Cooperation:

Defence has emerged as the bedrock of the partnership, moving beyond simple equipment sales to high-end technology transfer.

GE-HAL F414 Jet Engine Deal is a landmark deal in bilateral ties. This agreement involves an 80% transfer of technology (ToT) to India for manufacturing jet engines. This is the first time the U.S. has shared such sensitive propulsion technology with a non-NATO ally.

India remains a "Major Defence Partner." Cooperation has expanded through a new 10-year Defence Framework (2025) and advanced joint exercises like Yudh Abhyas and Malabar, aimed at enhancing maritime domain awareness in the Indo-Pacific.

The Technological Pivot:

The relationship has evolved from the 2023 iCET (Initiative on Critical and Emerging Technology) to a broader framework launched in 2025 known as TRUST (Transforming the Relationship Utilizing Strategic Technology).

The U.S.–India Roadmap on Accelerating AI Infrastructure seeks to build large-scale AI computing power in India using U.S.-origin hardware.

Under the Artemis Accords, NASA and ISRO are collaborating on a joint mission to the International Space Station (ISS) and developing frameworks for lunar exploration and satellite-based earth observation.

Economic Ties and Trade Frictions

The U.S. remains India’s largest trading partner, with bilateral trade reaching a record $212 billion in 2024-25. However, the economic relationship is currently a mixed bag.

Following leadership shifts in 2025, the U.S. imposed reciprocal tariffs (up to 25-50% on certain sectors) citing "unfair trade practices." India has responded with targeted support for its exporters while negotiating a Bilateral Trade Agreement (BTA).

Both nations are key partners in the Indo-Pacific Economic Framework (IPEF), focusing on de-risking supply chains from China, particularly in semiconductors, rare earth minerals, and pharmaceuticals.

Geopolitics:

The partnership is driven by a shared vision of a "Free, Open, and Inclusive Indo-Pacific." Collaboration within the Quadrilateral Security Dialogue (India, U.S., Japan, Australia) has shifted focus toward "public goods" such as vaccine diplomacy, climate monitoring, and undersea cable security.

While neither side explicitly calls it an "alliance," the "China factor" acts as a structural glue, pushing both toward deeper intelligence sharing and maritime cooperation.

Key Challenges in the Relationship

Despite the "strategic high," several friction points persist:

1. Divergence on Russia: India’s continued import of Russian crude oil and its neutral stance on the Ukraine conflict remain a point of diplomatic tension in Washington.
2. Strategic Autonomy: India’s insistence on "multi-alignment" (engaging with BRICS and SCO while being close to the U.S.) sometimes contrasts with U.S. expectations of a more formal alliance.
3. Human Rights and Internal Issues: Periodic reports from the U.S. State Department on religious freedom and domestic Indian legal cases (e.g., the Pannun case) occasionally strain political optics.

Conclusion:

The India–U.S. relationship in 2026 is a strategic necessity. While trade disputes and differing geopolitical views on Eurasia create friction, the convergence on technology (TRUST) and defence (GE-HAL deal) ensures that the trajectory remains upward.

Q17. Discuss the implications of the collapse of USSR in International Relations.

Ans. The collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 had profound implications for global politics, regional dynamics, and the international order. Here are some key implications of the collapse of the USSR: 

1. End of the Cold War - The collapse of the USSR marked the end of the Cold War, the decades-long ideological and geopolitical rivalry between the United States and the Soviet Union. With the disappearance of the Soviet Union as a superpower, the world moved away from the bipolar global order to a more unipolar system with the United States as the sole superpower. 
2. Disintegration of the Soviet Union - The collapse of the USSR resulted in the emergence of independent states, including Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, and others. The disintegration of the Soviet Union led to political and economic transformations, the establishment of new governments, and the realignment of borders in the post-Soviet space. 
3. Transition to Market Economies - The collapse of the USSR brought about significant economic changes in the newly independent states. Many former Soviet republics transitioned from centrally planned economies to market oriented systems, adopting economic reforms and liberalizing trade and investment. 
4. Geopolitical Shifts - The collapse of the USSR brought about significant geopolitical shifts, particularly in Eastern Europe and Central Asia. NATO expanded its membership to include former Soviet satellite states, and the European Union grew in size. The dissolution of the Warsaw Pact and the withdrawal of Soviet forces from Eastern Europe reshaped the security landscape in the region.
5. Rise of Russia as a Regional Power - With the collapse of the USSR, Russia emerged as the successor state and retained a significant portion of Soviet military and economic infrastructure. It embarked on a process of political and economic transformation, seeking to regain influence and establish itself as a regional power in Eurasia.
6. Regional Conflicts and Instability - The collapse of the USSR led to several regional conflicts and internal tensions within newly independent states.  Conflicts such as the war in Chechnya, the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict, and the conflicts in Transnistria and Abkhazia emerged, leading to political instability, humanitarian crises, and border disputes in the post-Soviet space. 
7. Nuclear Non-Proliferation - The collapse of the USSR had significant implications for nuclear non-proliferation efforts. As the Soviet Union disintegrated, the newly independent states inherited nuclear weapons and infrastructure. However, through negotiations and international agreements, efforts were made to prevent the spread of nuclear weapons and to secure and dismantle the Soviet nuclear arsenal. 
8. Shift in Global Balance of Power - The collapse of the USSR and the end of the Cold War altered the global balance of power. The United States emerged as the dominant superpower, with increased influence and a larger role in shaping global politics. This shift in power dynamics had implications for global governance, international institutions, and the pursuit of national interests by various countries. 
9. Impact on Globalization and Integration - The collapse of the USSR opened up new opportunities for globalization and integration. Former Soviet republics sought to establish economic ties and diplomatic relations with other countries, leading to increased global interconnectedness and the integration of post-Soviet states into the global economy.
10. Challenges of Nation-Building - The collapse of the USSR presented significant challenges of nation-building for the newly independent states.  These challenges included establishing democratic institutions, addressing ethnic and national tensions, developing effective governance structures, and managing economic transitions.

Collapse of the Socialist Bloc and the Liberalisation of Socialist Regime

The new policy initiatives of the USSR and the signing of INF Treaty with the USA in 1987 gave a boost to process of arms control, peaceful coexistence and cooperation between East and West. Gorbachev adopted the policy of encouraging liberalisation towards the West. The concepts of Perestroika and Glasnost became instrumental in producing a movement towards liberalisation and democratisation in the socialist countries of Europe, between 1988 and 1990, the process of liberalisation of East European countries started. The communist regimes in all these states began getting replaced by liberalised non-communist democratic regimes. In the USSR, the new liberalisation and restructuring got transformed into a movement for democratic rights and freedom. The economic weakness of the USSR reflected in shortages in consumer goods and food, provided fuel to the movement for liberalisation.

The Union Republics of USSR, one after the other, started declaring their independence. The Baltic states of Estonia, Lithuania and Latvia were first to secure their independence from the USSR. By November 1991, the soviet authority got almost totally eclipsed. All the soviet republics declared their independence. In November 1991, 9 republics of the USSR which had declared themselves as sovereign independent states, signed a treaty to form the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS). In December 1991, the flag of the USSR was replaced by the flag of Russia. Boris Yeltsin became the President of Russia. Russia inherited permanent seat of the USSR in the UN Security Council. With this, the collapse of the USSR became complete and a superpower got confined to the pages of history.

Disintegration of the USSR led to disintegration of entire Socialist Bloc. The Socialist Bloc now came to be a Liberalised Bloc. The Eastern European States throwed themselves now closer to the Western European States. East Germany merged with West Germany to become one single Germany.

Q18. Describe the elements of National Power.

Ans. Every state secures its national interest by asserting national power.

• Morgenthau defines national power as a psychological relation between those who exercise it and those over whom it is exercised. It gives the former control over certain actions of the latter through the influence that the former exerts over the latter’s mind.
• Organski explains national power as the ability to influence the behaviour of others in accordance with one’s own mind.
• According to Charles, Power is the ability to make a man do what one wants and not to do what one does not want.

In brief, national power is the ability or capability of a nation to secure the goals and objectives of its national interest, in relation with other nations. It involves the capacity to use force or threat or influence over others for securing the goals of national interest.

Elements of National Power

Morgenthau has grouped elements of national power under permanent and temporary elements.

Organski has classified it into two – Natural Determinance and Social Determinance.

• Natural Determinance includes geography, resources, and population.
• Social Determinance includes political structures and national morale.

Palmer and Perkins and several others make a distinction between intangible and tangible elements of national power.

• Tangible elements are composed of elements that can be assessed in quantitative terms lie economic development, resources, geography, population, and technology.
• Intangible elements are like ideology, morale, leadership, personality, and quality of diplomacy.

Thus, the elements of national power can be of various types such as: -

1. Geography – It is the most stable, tangible, permanent, and natural element amongst the determination of national power. It includes: -

1. Size: a large size country is beneficial in defending frontiers while retreating during the attack, offer better resources, can accommodate larger population, and establish important industrial complexes. On the hand, the size of the county may not matter much in international relations. Israel, despite being small in size has a powerful defence mechanism.
2. Location: location of England helped it in becoming a big naval and imperial power. USA was able to follow its policy of isolation due to its location, whereas location of Canada being so close to USA, has prevented it from becoming a superpower.
3. Climate: it is important for production of food. Cold Arctic zone and excessive heat of Sahara had prevented their development.
4. Topography: plain and artificial boundaries of a country can make it vulnerable to expansionism. Atlantic and Pacific oceans have provided strength to the USA. While Himalayas are generally seen as protecting India’s northern borders.

2. Natural Resources – Self-sufficiency in natural resources helps in the development of the country. Self-sufficiency in resources allows a nation to develop agriculture, including self-sufficiency in food, develop industrial establishments and build military. Morgenthau discuss the significance of natural resources in two parts, i.e., raw materials and food.

• Raw materials are further sub-divided into three parts, i.e., minerals such as coal, petrol, iron, copper, zinc, manganese etc. Secondly, in products such as rubber, wood, bamboo, jute, etc. And finally, animal products like meat, egg, silk, etc.
• On food as a deciding factor, a national power, Morgenthau once said, “nations self-sufficient in food are better are placed than nations which import food.”

3. Population – A country which is inhabited by lazy, illiterate, incompetent, unemployed, and unskilled human resources, hinders development. Strong, healthy, disciplined, employed, literate, and skilled population facilitates development of the country and its national power.
4. Economic Development – The level of economic development also determines the national power. It is a means of building military power and welfare and prosperity of people. A developed, heathy, prosperous and growing nation creates an impact at world level. It is able to leverage economic instruments like aid, loans, rewards, trade and grants for achieving its goals at international level. A weak nation that is characterised by poverty, and under-development, suffers from acute and multiple limits on its national power.
5. Industrial Capacity – Technology and industrialisation helped in the development of industrial capacity. A country with well-built industrial capacity would have the potential to become superpower. USA, Germany, Britain, China, France, Japan are great powers because they possess huge industrial capacity and industrial sector aids in extracting natural resources and converting it into industrial goods. Nowadays, knowledge industry has also become an important element of National Power. Revolution in I.T. and Communication, and the outbreak of 4^th industrial revolution such as A.I. is making countries develop their capabilities in these new technologies.
6. Technology – A well-developed technological know-how enables human welfare and progress. Technology is significant for industrial development, military development, development of transport and communication, economic and social development. I.T, nuclear technology, space technology, and missile technology has emerged as important sources of power and influence in international relations. National power enhances further when a country is self-sufficient in manufacturing industrial and hi-tech goods at home rather than being dependent on imports.
7. Military preparedness – It is an important factor in the success of foreign policy and in promotion of national interest. Possession of advanced and sophisticated weapon technology is a source of strength and strategic advantage. An effective and efficient military leadership, and skilled, dedicated and disciplined armed forces further strengthen military preparedness of a nation. It is dependent upon economic power of a country, technology, industrial capacity and policy of government.
8. Ideology – It is an intangible element of national power. It can be a source of friendship or enmity between nations. Ideological closeness between Germany and Italy made them a source of criticism across the world. The ideological war between communism and capitalism after 1945 led to cold war, with many countries joining alliances to safeguard their territories.
9. Leadership – A strong and skilled leader directs the utilization of natural resources, human resources, and raw materials to efficiency and competency. A mature, devoted and efficient leadership leads the country to progress and success.
10. Organisation and quality of government – A corrupt and inefficient government wastes the natural and human resources, and reduces its national strength and status in international affairs. For example: a strong, democratic, well-functioning, and responsible government leads to good governance and increases its awareness and prestige at global levels. A weak civilian government in Pakistan has led to failure of its economy and society.
11. National Character and Morale – This is also an intangible element of national power. National character refers to traits, attitude, and aptitude of the people. For Example: Indians are known for religious beliefs and idealism. Germans are synonymous for their discipline, industriousness and Americans, for their inventiveness, initiative, and spirit of adventure.

Morgenthau defines national morale as degree of determination with which the nation supports the foreign policy of the government in peace and war. It permeates all activities of a nation, its agriculture and industrial production as well as its military establishment and diplomatic service.

12. Diplomacy – A high quality diplomacy transforms the available resources into national strength. USA’s successful diplomacy helps it in projecting itself as a sole superpower.