Political Science - II : Previous Year Questions (2020)

PART – A

Q1. What do you understand by 'Balance of Power'?

Ans. In international relations, BOP is defined as the distribution of equal powers among the nations. When the power is more or less equally distributed, then no state can eliminate others and no state feels threatened.

Q2. Define National Power.

Ans. National power is the ability or capability of a nation to secure the goals and objectives of its national interest, in relation with other nations. It involves the capacity to use force or threat or influence over others for securing the goals of national interest.

Q3. Write two causes of New Cold War.

Ans. Two causes of New Cold War:

1. Irresponsible Soviet View – The Reagan administration held the view that Soviet conduct in Angola, Middle-East, and UN was irresponsible and detrimental to the US interest and the spirit of détente.
2. The US attempts to cultivate relations with Eastern Europe and China, with a view to check Soviet influence - The US Foreign Policy even during 1970s involved the attempt to increase the division between China and Soviet Union, with a view to secure a strategic advantage vis-à-vis the Soviet Union by cultivating relations with China.

Q4. What is Diplomacy?

Ans. Diplomacy is the process and practice of communication and negotiation between actors in international system with the aim of achieving the goals and resolving their conflicts and disputes. It involves various method and tools such as dialogue, persuasion, compromise, and coercion to influence and shape behaviour and outcomes of other states.

Q5. Write the meaning of Neo-colonialism.

Ans. Neo-colonialism refers to the continued economic, political, and cultural dominance of former colonial powers and other developed countries over former colonies and developing nations, despite their formal independence. It is characterized by indirect forms of control and exploitation, often through economic mechanisms and unequal power dynamics.

Q6. Define Foreign policy.

Ans. Foreign policy is a set of strategic principles and actions adopted by a state to manage its relationships with other nations. Its primary purpose is to protect and advance national interests such as security, economic prosperity, and the well-being of its citizens, within the complex environment of global interdependence.

Q7. Write two Elements of National Power.

Ans. Geography, Natural Resources.

Q8. Write two causes of Decolonization.

Ans. Two causes of decolonisation:

1. Nationalism and Independence Movements - Nationalist movements emerged in many colonized regions, fuelled by a desire for self-determination and political independence. Local leaders and intellectuals mobilized people around a shared sense of national identity, advocating for the end of colonial rule and the establishment of independent nations. 
2. World Wars and Global Shifts - The world wars, especially World War II, had a significant impact on the process of decolonization. These conflicts weakened colonial powers and exposed the contradictions of maintaining vast colonial empires while fighting for freedom and democracy. The war also provided opportunities for nationalist movements to gain support and leverage their demands for independence. 

Q9. What is Multi polarity?

Ans. Multipolarity in international relations refers to a power structure where power and influence are distributed among multiple major actors or states. In a multipolar system, there are several significant powers that possess the capability to shape global politics, security, and economics. 

Q10. Mention any two disputes exist between India and China.

Ans. Two major, ongoing territorial disputes between India and China involve the Aksai Chin region in the west (administered by China, claimed by India) and Arunachal Pradesh in the east (claimed by China as South Tibet, administered by India). These disputes stem from undefined borders and result in frequent standoffs along the Line of Actual Control (LAC).

PART – B

Q11. Explain the elements of National Power.

Ans. elements of national power can be of various types such as: -

1. Geography – It is the most stable, tangible, permanent, and natural element amongst the determination of national power. It includes: -

1. Size: a large size country is beneficial in defending frontiers while retreating during the attack, offer better resources, can accommodate larger population, and establish important industrial complexes. On the hand, the size of the county may not matter much in international relations. Israel, despite being small in size has a powerful defence mechanism.
2. Location: location of England helped it in becoming a big naval and imperial power. USA was able to follow its policy of isolation due to its location, whereas location of Canada being so close to USA, has prevented it from becoming a superpower.
3. Climate: it is important for production of food. Cold Arctic zone and excessive heat of Sahara had prevented their development.
4. Topography: plain and artificial boundaries of a country can make it vulnerable to expansionism. Atlantic and Pacific oceans have provided strength to the USA. While Himalayas are generally seen as protecting India’s northern borders.

2. Natural Resources – Self-sufficiency in natural resources helps in the development of the country. Self-sufficiency in resources allows a nation to develop agriculture, including self-sufficiency in food, develop industrial establishments and build military. Morgenthau discuss the significance of natural resources in two parts, i.e., raw materials and food.

• Raw materials are further sub-divided into three parts, i.e., minerals such as coal, petrol, iron, copper, zinc, manganese etc. Secondly, in products such as rubber, wood, bamboo, jute, etc. And finally, animal products like meat, egg, silk, etc.
• On food as a deciding factor, a national power, Morgenthau once said, “nations self-sufficient in food are better are placed than nations which import food.”

3. Population – A country which is inhabited by lazy, illiterate, incompetent, unemployed, and unskilled human resources, hinders development. Strong, healthy, disciplined, employed, literate, and skilled population facilitates development of the country and its national power.
4. Economic Development – The level of economic development also determines the national power. It is a means of building military power and welfare and prosperity of people. A developed, heathy, prosperous and growing nation creates an impact at world level. It is able to leverage economic instruments like aid, loans, rewards, trade and grants for achieving its goals at international level. A weak nation that is characterised by poverty, and under-development, suffers from acute and multiple limits on its national power.
5. Industrial Capacity – Technology and industrialisation helped in the development of industrial capacity. A country with well-built industrial capacity would have the potential to become superpower. USA, Germany, Britain, China, France, Japan are great powers because they possess huge industrial capacity and industrial sector aids in extracting natural resources and converting it into industrial goods. Nowadays, knowledge industry has also become an important element of National Power. Revolution in I.T. and Communication, and the outbreak of 4^th industrial revolution such as A.I. is making countries develop their capabilities in these new technologies.
6. Technology – A well-developed technological know-how enables human welfare and progress. Technology is significant for industrial development, military development, development of transport and communication, economic and social development. I.T, nuclear technology, space technology, and missile technology has emerged as important sources of power and influence in international relations. National power enhances further when a country is self-sufficient in manufacturing industrial and hi-tech goods at home rather than being dependent on imports.
7. Military preparedness – It is an important factor in the success of foreign policy and in promotion of national interest. Possession of advanced and sophisticated weapon technology is a source of strength and strategic advantage. An effective and efficient military leadership, and skilled, dedicated and disciplined armed forces further strengthen military preparedness of a nation. It is dependent upon economic power of a country, technology, industrial capacity and policy of government.
8. Ideology – It is an intangible element of national power. It can be a source of friendship or enmity between nations. Ideological closeness between Germany and Italy made them a source of criticism across the world. The ideological war between communism and capitalism after 1945 led to cold war, with many countries joining alliances to safeguard their territories.
9. Leadership – A strong and skilled leader directs the utilization of natural resources, human resources, and raw materials to efficiency and competency. A mature, devoted and efficient leadership leads the country to progress and success.
10. Organisation and quality of government – A corrupt and inefficient government wastes the natural and human resources, and reduces its national strength and status in international affairs. For example: a strong, democratic, well-functioning, and responsible government leads to good governance and increases its awareness and prestige at global levels. A weak civilian government in Pakistan has led to failure of its economy and society.
11. National Character and Morale – This is also an intangible element of national power. National character refers to traits, attitude, and aptitude of the people. For Example: Indians are known for religious beliefs and idealism. Germans are synonymous for their discipline, industriousness and Americans, for their inventiveness, initiative, and spirit of adventure.

Morgenthau defines national morale as degree of determination with which the nation supports the foreign policy of the government in peace and war. It permeates all activities of a nation, its agriculture and industrial production as well as its military establishment and diplomatic service.

12. Diplomacy – A high quality diplomacy transforms the available resources into national strength. USA’s successful diplomacy helps it in projecting itself as a sole superpower.

Q12. Discuss the determinants of Foreign Policy.

Ans. Foreign policy is a set of strategic principles and actions adopted by a state to manage its relationships with other nations. Its primary purpose is to protect and advance national interests such as security, economic prosperity, and the well-being of its citizens, within the complex environment of global interdependence.

Determinants of Foreign Policy

The foreign policy of a country is determined by the number of elements which are influenced by various factors. The determinants vary in terms of its importance as per the circumstances. In general, the basic determinants of foreign policy can be broadly classified into two categories – Internal Factors and External Factors.

Internal Factors:

1. Geography – It is a permanent and stable factor which determines the states’ foreign policy. Geography includes location, size, topography, state boundaries, climate, population, natural resources, etc. of a nation. The size of the nation influences the psychological and operational environment within which policy makers and public respond. Large size of the state cannot be considered as an independent determinant as state power is increased by large, it has the capacity to accommodate large population and contains varied supply of natural resources. The geostrategic location of the state is also an important factor in policy formulation. Climatic conditions of the state are another geographical feature that plays a crucial role in the determination of a state’s foreign policy. Position of natural resources increases bargaining capacity of a state internationally and helps in foreign policy choices, but it must be stated that effect of geography has lost much lost much of its importance due to the recent developments of science and technology.
2. History and Culture – History of a nation has its influence on foreign policy making. Political tradition of a nation is rooted in its history and culture. The basic foreign policy objective is guided considerably by the historical and cultural tradition of the state. For example: many developing countries including India have strongly taken stand for anti-imperialism, anti-colonialism, and anti-racism, due to the bitter experience of colonialism, imperialism, and racism.
3. National Capacity – It includes military strength, economic development and technological progress of the nation. The economic position of the nations in terms of Gross National Product (GNP) which enables a nation to understand its ability to utilise its natural and human resources, also helped a nation in foreign policy choices. The highly developed countries in terms of economy, technology, and military have the advantage in gaining desired objective in their relations with economically and technologically weaker countries. Developing countries due to their dependence on the developed countries for capital, technology and military research and development loses the power to formulate an independent foreign policy.
4. Public Opinion –  It is not possible for the government of a state to ignore or go against the public opinion for long. In democratic state especially, the government cannot dare to ignore the importance of the public opinion in both domestic and foreign policies. Public opinion has gained more importance in the world at present. Public opinion in case of foreign policy, sets limitations on choices of policies and constraints in policy execution.
5. Ideology – Ideology of a state generally influences the foreign policy of a state so far as it determines the goals to be achieved by the state in international relations. The emergence of 2 types of foreign policy in the post-World War – II period is largely due to the ideological conflict between USSR and USA. Generally, there is a lot of affinity in the policy of states professing a particular ideology and feelings of enmity among the states propounding other ideologies.
6. Social and Political Structures – The foreign policy of a state is influenced to great extent by the nature of political system and ruling elite. For Example: foreign policy of a democratic state would be different from the foreign policy of an authoritarian state. Whenever there is a sudden change in the government of the state, it leads to change in course of foreign policy in the state.
7. Role of Policy Makers: Attitude of the policy makers also determine the foreign policy. Foreign policy is based significantly on the leadership qualities as it determines the strength and direction of foreign policy of the state. It is very strongly related to psychological traits, personality, and willingness of the leaders in the formulation of foreign policy. There is major role played by ruling elite and the decision makers and in accordance with their perception of reality. The policy makers take due note of the relevant values, relevant sectors of the environment, and accordingly determine the objectives of foreign policy. The decision makers interpret the national income and also perceive the external environment by formulating the foreign policy. The impact of views and personalities of the ruling elite on foreign policy formulation is quite natural. Foreign policy is however, not the result of role played by few leaders only. It is also the interplay of various other determinants and pressures of bureaucrats.

External Factors:

External environment is also very necessary while formulating foreign policy of a scale. International laws, treaties, agreements, facts, international and regional organisations considerably influence and also limits the making of foreign policy of the state.

The external determinants include:

1. International Organisations – International organisations such as the UN and others aimed at maintaining world peace and order and international law. UNO’s activities and other agencies such as IMF, World Bank, SAARC, ASEAN, etc. also have profound influence on the foreign policy formation of the state.
2. World Public Opinion – Like domestic public opinion, world public opinion has a strong influence on foreign policy making. No nation can dare to go against the world’s public opinion or challenge it. World public opinion has its impact on various issues such as human rights, war, peace, environment, and this is mainly due to increasing consciousness among people.
3. Interest of other state – While formulating foreign policy, a state has to take into account the interest of other member states as well.  If a state tries to base its foreign policy on self-interest, it would not only bring the state in conflict with other state but also will make the interest of other states impossible to meet.

Q13. Explain the relationship between Foreign policy and Diplomacy.

Ans. In the study of International Relations, the terms foreign policy and diplomacy are frequently used interchangeably; however, they represent distinct components of a state's international activity. Understanding the nuances between the two is essential for grasping how states interact on the global stage.

Conceptual Distinctions: Substance vs. Method

The most fundamental distinction lies in their nature: Foreign policy is the substance, while diplomacy is the process.

• Foreign Policy: This represents the "what" of international relations. It is a set of strategic goals, principles, and national requirements formulated by a state to protect its interests. As Sir Harold Nicholson noted, it is a "general conception of national requirements."
• Diplomacy: This is the "how." It encompasses the techniques, negotiations, and communications used to implement those strategies. It is the tactical agency through which a state pursues its objectives through dialogue and agreement rather than through coercion or conflict.

Implementation and Agency

Foreign policy acts as the rule-making body, establishing the trajectory of a nation’s external affairs. In contrast, diplomacy is the rule-application body, serving as the practical instrument for day-to-day execution.

While the Head of State or Government is typically responsible for the formulation of policy, the diplomatic corps (ambassadors, envoys, and foreign service officers) is responsible for its conduct.

Key Differences

The Dynamics of Foreign Policy Formulation

Foreign policy is not created in a vacuum; it is an expression of a state's internal health and external pressures. Several factors influence its development:

• Internal Stability: The quality of leadership, economic strength, and social cohesion directly impact the firmness of a state's foreign policy.
• National Interest: Every state seeks to improve its domestic conditions by fostering beneficial relations with others. This is the primary driver of policy.
• Adaptability: In an unpredictable global environment, foreign policy must be reflexive. It involves a constant cycle of action and reaction as states adapt to the opportunities or threats presented by others.

Foreign Policy vs. International Politics

It is important to distinguish foreign policy from international politics.

• International Politics refers to the broader, systemic interaction between various states, governed by international law and global power dynamics.
• Foreign Policy is state-centric; it refers specifically to the goals and planned programs of a single state as it navigates those broader international interactions.

Modern Transparency and Coordination

In the contemporary era, the "myth of the state secret" has largely eroded. Foreign policies are now subject to public scrutiny, academic analysis, and media debate. For a state to be successful, there must be unity of action. This means that all diplomatic maneuvers, public statements by Foreign Ministers, and international agreements must remain strictly aligned with the overarching national interest.

Conclusion

Ultimately, diplomacy is the specialized skill set, characterized by tact, negotiation, and mediation, that allows a nation to achieve its foreign policy goals. While foreign policy provides the vision, diplomacy provides the path, ensuring that a state’s national interests are pursued through sophisticated engagement in the global arena.

PART – C

Q15. Discuss the nature and scope of International Relations.

Ans. International Relations (IR) is the study of interactions between sovereign states, non-state actors (like NGOs and corporations), and international organizations. It explores the dynamics of power, conflict, cooperation, and foreign policy, analysing how these relationships shape global governance, security, economics, and law.

Nature of International Relations

The nature of International Relations is dynamic. International Relations is a thorough analysis of what is happening in the world politics. The context and nature of international relations have undergone major changes after the end of World War – II. Traditionally, world politics was centred around Europe and relations among nations were largely conducted by officials of foreign officials in secrecy. The common man was hardly involved and treaties were kept secret, today, public opinion had started to play an important role in decision making process in foreign offices. Thus, changing completely the nature of International Relations.

Ambassadors once briefed by the governments were largely free to conduct relations according to the ground realities of the countries of their posting. Today not only nuclear weapons change, the nature of war and replaced erstwhile the balance of power by the balance of terror, but also the nature of diplomacy changed as well. We live in a jet age where the heads of state, government and their foreign ministers travel across the globe and personally establish contacts and conduct international relations.

Due to increasing human activities, the relations among various states has been changing and due to this continuous change in international relations, the nature of international relation has been changing. Now it has become difficult to explain the nature of international relations.

However, there are few important points explaining the nature of international relations:

1. No single definition – International relations have no single definition. No universally accepted definition of the international relations have been coined because of its continuous changing nature.
2. Operates in anarchical system – International relations operate in anarchical system. There is no single organisation to regulate among states. Michel Nicolson says that, “international relations is study of aspects of anarchy, through an anarchy which is not necessarily chaotic.”
3. Concerns with global issues – International relations deal with key issues which concerns public global interest. For example, every country has an interest in stopping global warming, goal that can be achieved only by many countries acting together.
4. Nations are primary actors of International Relations – Politics is a process of interaction among groups and international politics is primarily a process of interaction among nations. Nation states are the key actors but along with the several non-state, transnational, and multinational groups which also play an important role in international relations.
5. National interest is the primary objective – National interest is the objective that each nation aims to achieve in elation with other nation. International politics basically involves the art of preserving or securing goals or national interest by using control over other nations.
6. Conflicts as the condition of international politics – The possibility of making national interest compatible to accommodation, adjustment and reconciliation leads to some cooperation among nations. But in case there is incompatibility among national interest of various nations, then it becomes a source of conflict. As such conflicts and cooperation as well as coercion and persuasion, are always present in international relations.
7. Power as the means – In conditions of conflicts, each nation attempts to secure the goals of their national interest. The means for securing these goals is power. That’s why each nation is continuously engaged in the process of acquiring, maintaining, increasing and using power. A power that backs a nations’ attempt to secure its national interest, is called national power.
8. International politics as a process of conflict resolution among nations - Conflicts is the condition of international politics. It is most important element of international politics because in absence of conflict of interests, power can have little function to perform. Conflict is at the root of both dispute and cooperation among nations. However, at the same time it cannot be denied that the existence of conflicts compels the nation with similar goals of national interest to cooperate with each other.
9. Interaction among foreign policies – Since international environment is very complex and dynamic, and each nation has to act in conditions characterised by conflicts, cooperation, competition, war, tension, and uncertainties. It is essential for each nation to perform on the basis of foreign policy. The relations among nations mostly take place in the form of interaction among the foreign policy of nations.

Scope of International Relations

As a subject of study, international relations is relatively new and developing subject. Its scope is continuously expanding and developing.

The scope of international relations includes:

1. State System – The study of international relations begins with the state system as it has a great impact on international scene since last three centuries. Sovereign states strive to fulfil their interest. The incompatible interest of these sovereign states cause conflict, and international politics studies those national outcomes of conflict of sovereign states. Not all states come in conflict with other states. Some due to military, economic, racial, or cultural links cooperate with each other peacefully.
2. Relation in conflict and cooperation – International relations studies relations between two or more states which are often complex and influenced by a variety of geopolitical, historical, social, religious, ideological, strategic, and leadership factors. Broadly speaking, these relationships have taken the form of cooperation and conflict. In spite of the fact there are more conflict in international history than cooperation, both have co-existed throughout the various period of history of international relations.
3. National Interest – It is an unclear concept that carries a meaning according to the context in which in which it is used. Governments have always used it in ways suitable to them and to their objective of justifying the actions of their state. It is the national interest that determines the shape of scope of international relations of countries. This in turn, affects the direction of global relations. Accordingly, the scope of international relations includes the study of objectives of various countries, they try to achieve under their national interest.
4. Power – It is ultimately the power that determines the inter-state relations. The success or failure of a country that achieves the objective it has set under its national interest is depending upon the extent of national power of a country. Thus, super power will be in better position to pursue its national interest agenda, than a regional or smaller power. The study of national power forms an important part of the subject matter of international relations.
5. Foreign Policies – Strategies chosen by a nation state to safeguard its national interest by interacting with other states are reflective in its foreign policy. By studying the foreign policies of various nations, one can hope to understand the present day international relations. In the past, kings or Prime Ministers or a few individuals played an active role in determining foreign policy. Today, not only governments, leaders, but also citizens are involved in formulation of foreign policy. The state of affairs or ideology in foreign policy, the ideological issues of the respective regimes are an important part of International Relations.
6. International Economic Relations – The increased importance and role of economic and trade relations in global affairs cannot be over-looked, and can hardly be under-estimated. Bi-lateral or multi-lateral economic relations in the form of trade, investment, aid, etc. form a very important part of international relations. They are the most important means of influencing the course, context, and direction of relation among the nation states. Hence, the study of economic relations forms an integral part of the scope of international relations.
7. Non-State Actors – Apart from the study of state system, the study of non-state actors also forms an integral part of international relations. These non-state actors can be violent as well as non-violent. Violent non-state actors, whether they form genuine liberation movements or pure terrorist organisations, have been playing a larger than life role in international relations. Similarly, non-violent, non-state actors such as MNCs, NGOs, and other such actors in the international environment forms an integral part in the study of international system.
8. Concepts and Ideas – International Relations can be studied from another perspective also. These perspectives are formed by certain concepts and ideas which have been dominating the study of international relations since its inception. For example, concepts like international law, the balance of power, dictatorship, capitalism, public opinion, etc., have guided and are still guiding and controlling the relation of nations in their global dealings.
9. Study of current issues and events – International relations is the study of major contemporary issues and events which are the immediate drivers of inter-state relations at any time. Scope of international politics include the study of these issues like global warming, terrorism, etc., and events like wars and conflicts which shape and condition the behaviour of nations in international relations.

Q16. Discuss the meaning and role of MNCs in International Relations.

Ans. A multinational corporation (MNC), also known as a multinational enterprise (MNE), is a company that operates and has business activities in multiple countries. These corporations have a presence in various countries beyond their home country and conduct business operations, such as manufacturing, sales, and services, in multiple locations worldwide.

Role of MNCs in International Relations

Multinational corporations (MNCs) play a significant role in international relations due to their global reach, economic power, and influence. Here are some key ways in which MNCs impact international relations:

1. Economic Growth and Development - MNCs contribute to economic growth and development in both home and host countries. They invest in foreign markets, create job opportunities, transfer technology and knowledge, and stimulate local economies. Their operations often lead to increased trade and investment flows, fostering economic interdependence and cooperation between nations.
2. Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) - MNCs are major drivers of foreign direct investment. Their investments in various countries can lead to infrastructure development, technological advancements, and capacity building. FDI can enhance economic integration, promote trade relations, and contribute to the overall economic well-being of countries involved.
3. Global Supply Chains and Trade Networks - MNCs play a crucial role in shaping global supply chains and trade networks. They establish intricate networks of suppliers, distributors, and partners across borders, facilitating the movement of goods, services, and capital. Their activities influence patterns of international trade and investment and contribute to the integration of economies.
4. Technological Transfer and Innovation - MNCs often bring advanced technologies, research and development capabilities, and managerial expertise to host countries. This transfer of technology and knowledge can enhance productivity, promote innovation, and strengthen the technological capabilities of host nations. It can also contribute to the development of local industries and improve their competitiveness.
5. Diplomatic and Political Influence - MNCs exert diplomatic and political influence due to their economic power and global reach. They engage in lobbying, advocacy, and corporate diplomacy to shape policies, regulations, and trade agreements that affect their business interests. MNCs can influence domestic and international politics through their economic contributions and engagement with governments and international organizations.
6. Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) - MNCs are increasingly expected to adhere to principles of corporate social responsibility. They are often involved in social and environmental initiatives, community development programs, and sustainability efforts. Through CSR activities, MNCs can contribute to social and environmental progress, address local concerns, and enhance their reputation in host countries.
7. Conflict and Human Rights Concerns - MNCs can become involved in conflicts and human rights issues in their operations abroad. Their activities may impact local communities, indigenous peoples, and vulnerable populations. Issues related to labor rights, environmental degradation, land disputes, and resource extraction can lead to tensions and conflicts, requiring engagement with governments and international bodies to address these challenges.

Q17. Discuss the meaning and Major causes of Cold War.

Ans. The Cold War was a period of geopolitical tension and rivalry between the United States and the Soviet Union (USSR) and their respective allies. It lasted roughly from the end of World War II in 1945 to the early 1990s. Although direct military conflict between the two superpowers did not occur, there were numerous proxy wars, arms races, and ideological clashes during this time. 

Key events during the Cold War included the formation of military alliances, such as NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) by the United States and its allies, and the establishment of the Warsaw Pact by the Soviet Union and its satellite states in Eastern Europe. The arms race between the superpowers led to the development and stockpiling of nuclear weapons, which raised the stakes of the conflict and heightened the fear of a potential global nuclear war. 

Causes of Cold War

Cold War occurred mainly due to the following reasons:

1. Struggle for Democracy - Finally, all wars are hot or cold for establishing hegemony as well as accessing global resources like hydrocarbon resources, oil resources, access to markets, gaining a foothold of a geostrategic location etc. Cold war was no exception. It started after World War – II, between the USA and the USSR. When the civil war broke out in Russia in 1918, USA, France, Britain and Japan sent troops to Russia to hold the anti-communist forces. This was the first signal of the start of cold war. The communists won the war but Stalin who became the Russian leader in 1928, was convinced that there would be another attempt by capitalist powers to destroy communism in Russia. The German invasion on Russia in 1981 proved him right. The need for self-preservation against Germany and Japan caused the USSR, USA and Britain to forget their differences and work together. But as soon as the defeat of Germany was only a matter of time, both states began to plan for post-war period.
2. Clash of Ideologies - The basic cause of conflict lay in the differences in principles between the communist system and capitalist or liberal democratic states. The communist system of organising the state and society was based on the ideas of Karl Marx. He believed that the wealth of the country should be owned collectively and shared by everybody. The interests and well-being of the working classes should be safeguarded by social policies. On the other hand, the capitalist system was based on private ownership of country’s wealth, the driving force behind capitalism and private enterprise is the pursuit of making profit and preservation of the power of private wealth. Ever since the worlds’ first communist government was set up in Russia, the government of most capitalist states viewed it as with distrust and were afraid of communism spreading to other countries. This world means the end of private ownership of wealth as well as the loss of political power by the wealthy classes.
3. Stalin’s foreign policy contributed to tension - Stalin wanted to take advantage of the military situation to strengthen soviet influence in Europe. As the Nazi’s army collapsed, Stalin tried to occupy as much German territory as he could and acquired as much land as he could. Get away wealth from countries such as Finland, Poland, and Romania. In this way he was highly successful but the west was alarmed and considered it as soviet aggression. They believed that Stalin was committed to spreading communism over as much globe as possible.
4. Western politicians’ hostility to the Soviet government - During the war, then president Roosevelt sent war materials of all kinds to Russia under a system known as land lease and Roosevelt was inclined to trust Stalin. But after Roosevelt died in April 1945, his successor Harry S. Truman was more suspicious and he toughened his attitude towards the communist. Some historians believed that Truman’s main motive behind dropping the atomic bombs on Japan was not to simply defeat Japan which was ready to surrender anyway, but to show Stalin what might happen to Russia if he dared to go war.
5. Stalin’s fear - Stalin suspected that the USA and the Britain were still keen on destroying communism and these 2 countries deliberately calculated to keep most of the pressure on Russians and bring them to the point of exhaustion during German invasion on Russia. Nor did they inform Stalin about the existence of atomic bomb until shortly before its use on Japan.
6. Churchill’s Fulton Speech - On 5^th March 1946, Churchill’s Fulton speech had signalled the beginning of the cold war, as he described in his speech that the iron curtain across Europe from Stalin in Baltic and countries in the Adriatic had been drawn.
7. Disagreements over Post-War Reconstruction - After World War II, there were disagreements between the United States and the Soviet Union regarding the reconstruction of war-torn Europe. The United States implemented the Marshall Plan, providing financial aid to Western European countries to rebuild their economies, while the Soviet Union sought to spread its influence and establish communist governments in Eastern Europe. These contrasting approaches deepened the divide between the two superpowers.
8. Nuclear Arms Race - The development and proliferation of nuclear weapons during the post-war period heightened tensions between the United States and the Soviet Union. The United States initially held a monopoly on nuclear weapons, but the Soviet Union successfully tested its first atomic bomb in 1949. The arms race that followed, characterized by the testing and stockpiling of nuclear weapons by both sides, created a constant fear of a devastating global conflict.
9. Competition for Global Influence - The United States and the Soviet Union sought to expand their spheres of influence and gain allies around the world.  They engaged in a global competition for strategic resources, access to markets, and geopolitical dominance. This competition was particularly evident in the Third World, where both superpowers sought to influence newly independent nations through political, economic, and military means.
10.  Formation of Military Alliances - In response to perceived threats, both the United States and the Soviet Union formed military alliances. The United States established NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) in 1949, with the aim of collective defence against any Soviet aggression. In response, the Soviet Union formed the Warsaw Pact in 1955, comprising its satellite states in Eastern Europe. These alliances further solidified the division between East and West and increased the potential for conflicts.

Q18. Examine the emerging trends in International Relations.

Ans. Following are the trends that emerged with time in the context of international relations:

1. The End of European Dominance – Before or during World War – II, Europe was a very powerful nation both economically and on military basis. It held supremacy all over the world. But after the end of the World War – II, its supremacy gets destroyed because it faced huge economic loss as world war was mainly by Europe. Along with this, independence movements among the colonies of Europe got momentum and its colonisation got weak and Europe’s supremacy shifted to the USA and the USSR.
2. Advent of Nuclear Warfare – On 6^th August 1945, a bomb was dropped on Hiroshima, and on 9^th August 1945, a bomb was dropped on Nagasaki in Japan. This led to Japan’s surrender and the end of second world war. Other nations also started to create new atomic bombs, like the USA and USSR, which were in conflict with each other. France, China, India, and Pakistan started nuclear testing. This increased the danger of disaster in the world.
3. Awakening of nations of Asia and Africa – The awakening of independence struggles in Asia and Africa posed challenges to colonial rule. After the Word War – II, Britain became weaker, making it weak administratively and militarily. Suddenly, there was an increase in membership of the United Nations (UNO), which reached the present number of 193.
4. Expansion of Communism – Countries like Germany, China, and Italy saw the expansion of communism. Other countries, like India were under the influence of the USSR.
5. Military Alliances – After World War - II, new military alliances emerged in the world such as NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organisation), led by the USA, in 1949. Its main aim was to stop the expansion of communism. In response, the USSR signed the Warsaw Pact in 1955. Its main aim was to provide protection from the atrocities of NATO. Another military alliance was SEATO (South East Asian Treaty Organisation), which was formed by South East Asian Nations in 1954 in collaboration with the USA. There was another military alliance named as CENTO (Central Treaty Organisation) formed by USA in 1955.
6. Advent of Cold War – The result of World War - II was seen in the form of Cold War.  The USA and the USSR were majorly involved in the cold war. The USA supported capitalism, while the USSR supported socialism and communism. All means were used to downgrade one another without the use of arms and ammunition.
7. Non-Alignment – After World War - II, many countries got independence. These newly independent countries had the option, whether to join USA or USSR. They joined neither of them and adopted the policy of non-alignment. These were nations that supported equal peace and world stability. The Non Alignment Movement (NAM) emerged in 1961 at Belgrade, led by Nasser of Egypt, Nehru of India, and Tito of Yugoslavia.
8. End of Imperialism and Communism – Imperialism became a trend in the 16^th century and continued until the Word War – II. Colonial nations started growing weaker, and nations became independent. International politics became global politics, and the focal point spread to various nations in Asia, Latin America, etc. With the decrease in European military and power, other superpowers emerged.
9. Decrease in the number of superpowers and emergence of new powers – Before and during World War - II, the number of superpowers were more in general. Every country of Europe like Germany, France, Spain was a superpower. After World War - II, the superpowers of the European continent decreased, and only two superpowers remained in the world – USA and USSR.  With the ever changing and evolving global scenario, new powers emerged in the 21^st century, like India, Brazil, and China.
10. Shift from Bipolarity to Multi Centralism – From 1945 to 1989, there were two superpowers. Now, many nations have nuclear power. Even if they are not nuclear powers, they have other form of power, such as economic and political influence.
11. Increase in importance of 3^rd world countries – Third world countries now have a voice in international politics. They have organised themselves in many ways, like SAARC and ASEAN.
12. North-South Conflict - Carbon emission is a major problem between the North and South. Most nations in the North are developed, while the south consists of either developing nations or underdeveloped nations. Northern Hemisphere countries try to dominate the Southern Hemisphere countries. But nowadays, southern countries are also increasing their power and influencing the world politics, international trade etc. due to which conflict takes place between the two.
13. Increase in the number of members in UNO – The members of the UNO increased from 51 to 193. The number of developing nations is greater. Permanent members of the UNSC are allied nations. Now, there is demand by developing countries to become permanent members.
14. Neo - Colonialism – It is a relatively new and growing concept. Nowadays, countries are not making other countries their colonies directly, rather they are making them their colonies by way of political means, or economic means such as by having a control over trade or market. It is called neo-colonialism.
15. Global Terrorism – Terrorism has been on a rise in the whole world. It is not limited to a particular country now. It greatly affects the relations among countries.