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India-Pakistan bilateral ties have always suffered because of lack of trust between the two nations. It can be examined from 1947 onwards when both the nations became independent. The formation of India and Pakistan differed on ideological differences as India believes strongly in the principle of secularism whereas Pakistan wanted to establish an Islamic state. However, these two nations are geographically, culturally and linguistically closer to each other than any part of the world.

India Pakistan relations remain one of South Asia’s most critical geopolitical issues, affecting regional stability, global diplomacy, and economic potential. Over the decades, the bilateral relationship has been marked by wars, cross-border terrorism, and intermittent diplomatic engagements.

​India Pakistan relations background have deep historical roots, extending even before the partition of British India in 1947. During the colonial era, growing political and religious divisions, fueled by the British policy of “divide and rule,” set the stage for communal tensions between Hindus and Muslims. The demand for a separate Muslim homeland, led by the All-India Muslim League under Muhammad Ali Jinnah, eventually culminated in the creation of Pakistan. The partition itself in 1947 marked a traumatic beginning to bilateral relations, triggering massive violence, forced migration, and deep-seated animosity.

Since independence, the India-Pakistan boundary stretches approximately 3,323 kilometers, including the Line of Control (LoC) in Jammu and Kashmir. The primary flashpoint has remained the Kashmir dispute, which has led to four major wars (1947, 1965, 1971, and 1999), along with numerous skirmishes and ceasefire violations.

The role of international players in India-Pakistan bilateral issues has been significant, although indirect. The United Nations (UN) has consistently advocated for a peaceful resolution, especially regarding the Kashmir dispute. The United States has played a key role in mediation through facilitated dialogue and back-channel diplomacy. China’s influence through its strategic alliance with Pakistan also impacts bilateral dynamics.

Persistent issues such as cross-border terrorism, ceasefire violations, and mutual political suspicion have continued to strain ties. Despite occasional peace dialogues and confidence-building measures, the relationship remains fragile, impacting regional security in South Asia.

Chronological Order of Key Events

India – Pakistan relations have evolved with time. Let’s study them with the help of a timeline.

1947: Partition of India and the first Kashmir War –

Partition of India and Pakistan took place in 1947 eventually leading to territorial disputes, particularly over the issue of Kashmir. As a resultant, Line of Control (LoC) was established.

1960: Indus Water Treaty –

In 1960, the signing of Indus-Water Treaty took place at Karachi, Pakistan. Pandit Jawaharlal Lal Nehru, Field Marshal Ayub Khan and W.A.B. Illif (the World Bank representative) signed this treaty. Under this treaty, the water of Eastern rivers of Indus (Ravi, Beas, Sutlej) was allocated to India, whereas India is under obligation to allow flow of waters of the Western rivers of Indus (Indus, Jhelum, Chenab) to Pakistan. India can use Western river waters for domestic, agricultural, and limited hydropower purposes.

1965: India-Pakistan War (Operation Gibraltor by Pakistan) –

In the year 1965, Pakistan launched Operation Gibraltor to invade Kashmir. The US and other foreign powers had to be involved in order to bring peace at the border. It finally ended with the conclusion of Tashkent Agreement. Under this agreement, leaders of both the countries agreed not to use force against each other and will look forward to a peaceful resolution of their bilateral disputes. But Pakistan still deceived India afterwards.

1971: India-Pakistan War (Bangladesh Liberation War) –

The 1971 war led to the creation of Bangladesh. India's military intervention and support for the Mukti Bahini (Bangladesh Liberation Army) led to the surrender of Pakistani forces in Dhaka, resulting in the birth of Bangladesh. It led to the conclusion of Shimla Agreement of 1972. As per this agreement, both the nations:

  1. Declared a ceasefire on their border.
  2. Agreed to have a peaceful solution for bilateral disputes.
  3. Agreed to resolve Kashmir issue bilaterally.
  4. Agreed to recognise LoC (Line of Control).

1998: Nuclear Tests –

In May 1998, both India and Pakistan conducted nuclear tests, marking a significant escalation in tensions and the beginning of a nuclear arms race in the region. India initiated the series with five tests at the Pokhran test range in Rajasthan on May 11th and 13th. Pakistan responded with its own tests, five in total, on May 28th, and another one on 30th May in the Chagai Hills region. These actions led to international condemnation, economic sanctions, and heightened global concern about nuclear proliferation in South Asia. 

1999: Kargil War –

The Kargil War, fought in 1999, was a conflict between India and Pakistan over the Kargil district of Jammu and Kashmir. Pakistani troops and paramilitary forces infiltrated Indian territory, occupying strategic positions along the Line of Control (LoC). The war, which lasted from May to July, saw intense fighting, particularly around key peaks and mountain passes. India launched Operation Vijay to recapture the lost territory and successfully drove out the Pakistani forces. 

2001: Indian Parliament Attack –

The 2001 Indian Parliament attack was a terrorist attack on the Parliament of India in New Delhi, India on 13 December 2001. The attack was carried out by five Jaish-e-Mohammed terrorists that resulted in the deaths of six Delhi Police personnel, two Parliament Security Service personnel, and a gardener.

2008: Mumbai Attack, also known as 26/11 attack –

The 2008 Mumbai attacks were a series of terrorist attacks that took place in Mumbai, India, from November 26 to 29. Ten Pakistani members of Lashkar-e-Taiba (LeT), a militant Islamist organization, carried out the attacks, targeting multiple locations including the Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus, the Taj Mahal Palace Hotel, and the Oberoi Trident Hotel. The attacks resulted in 166 fatalities and over 300 injuries. 

2016: Pathankot Airbase Attack –

On January 2, 2016, four militants belonging to the United Jihad Council attacked the Indian Air Force's Pathankot Airbase, part of its Western Air Command. Four militants and two security forces personnel were killed in the initial battle, with an additional security force member dying from injuries hours later.

2016: Uri Attack –

On September 18, 2016 four militants attacked Uri base camp, killing 19 Indian Soldiers. On September 29, 2016 the Indian Army retaliated by executing one of the most daring, strategic and covert operations ever – a surgical strike.

2019: Pulwama Attack –

On February 14, 2019, a suicide bomber from Pakistan-based Jaish-e-Mohammed targeted a CRPF convoy in Pulwama, Jammu and Kashmir, killing 40 personnel. This deadliest attack in Kashmir in decades escalated India-Pakistan tensions and led to the Balakot airstrikes by India. February 14 is known as Black Day in India because of the Pulwama attack in 2019.

2025: Pahalgam Terror Attack –

In a recent attack in Pahalgam (April 2025), Jammu and Kashmir, militants targeted tourists, resulting in significant casualties and injuries. India responded by closing its main land border with Pakistan and suspending the Indus Waters Treaty, accusing Pakistan of supporting cross-border terrorism.

Bilateral Relations

Various domains of bilateral relations between India and Pakistan are as follows:

Political Relations

India and Pakistan have a complex and often fraught political relationship characterized by historical grievances, territorial disputes (particularly over Kashmir), and ongoing tensions related to cross-border terrorism. Despite attempts at dialogue and confidence-building measures, including the Simla Agreement and the Lahore Declaration, the relationship remains fragile and marked by mistrust. 

Kashmir Issue:

India and Pakistan have fought three major wars centred on the issue of Kashmir. There are many interests of Pakistan in Kashmir other than the religious affiliation.

  1. Pakistan is an agrarian economy – the entire eastern and southern part of Pakistan is irrigated by the Indus and its tributaries and the source of their origin either lies in the region of Kashmir or in the mountainous zone of Tibet. Thus, any control of India on these river water will place Pakistan on the stage of disadvantage.
  2. Location of Kashmir – Kashmir’s location is strategic to Pakistan in terms of coming closer to China.
  3. People to people interaction – there is an emotional and psychological affiliation with the people of Kashmir to the people of Pakistan mainly on the name of religion. Traditionally, people to people interaction was seen common in this part of land.
  4. Md. Iqbal’s concept of Pakistan – according to his concept, the letter ‘K’ in Pakistan stands for Kashmir. Hence, without Kashmir the Pakistani establishment does not consider the completion of partition between India and Pakistan.

Historically, Kashmir has been an integral part of India since the days of the Mauryan empire. Even Kalhana’s Rajataringini is a living testimony to the fact that Kashmir has always been a part of Mainland India.

The 1947-48 war brought Kashmir closer to India as Maharaja Hari Singh of Kashmir signed an ‘Instrument of Accession’ with the govt. of India. In the wake of attack by the Pakistani militants, this agreement was signed and after that formally, Kashmir became an integral part of India. It was India which referred the Pakistan on Kashmir to UNSC and finally a ceasefire was declared under the supervision of UNSC. The United Nations also proposed to conduct a plebiscite inside Kashmir once the Pakistan army withdraws completely from the territory of Kashmir (UN Security Council Resolution 47, adopted in 1948).

Since Pakistan didn’t support the UN resolution of Plebiscite and its pre-condition is to withdraw its troops from PoK (Pakistan Occupied Kashmir) region, plebiscite has never been conducted in Kashmir.

Sir Creek Issue

The Sir Creek issue is a maritime boundary dispute between India and Pakistan, located in the Rann of Kutch marshes. The 96 km long estuary is a point of contention because both countries have differing interpretations of the 1914 resolution that defined the boundary between the then Bombay Presidency (now Gujarat) and Sindh (now in Pakistan). 

Sir Creek is rich in marine resources and potential for oil and gas exploration, making its ownership crucial for both nations. The dispute remains unresolved, with both sides maintaining their respective positions and occasional tensions in the area. 

Siachen Issue

The Siachen Glacier dispute between India and Pakistan stems from a lack of clear demarcation of the Line of Control (LoC) in the region after the 1972 Simla Agreement. Both countries claim the glacier, leading to a long-standing military standoff and Operation Meghdoot, India's pre-emptive move to secure the area in 1984.

Siachen's location provides strategic advantages, particularly concerning the Leh-Srinagar highway and proximity to China.

In 1984, India launched Operation Meghdoot to preempt Pakistan's plans to establish a presence in the region.

Trade and Economic Relations

India-Pakistan trade relations are complex, marked by both formal and informal trade, with a history of fluctuating tensions and disruptions. While direct formal trade has been limited, especially since 2019, informal trade, often routed through third countries, continues to flourish.     

Bilateral trade existed since independence, however, significant progress was made in the late nineties. India initiated the move for further boost in bilateral trade when it extended the MFN status to Pakistan in 1996 and the trade volume grew remarkably in the early 2000s. 

  • Main items of export from India to Pakistan are: cotton, organic chemicals, food products including prepared animal fodder, edible vegetables, plastic articles, man-made filament, coffee, tea, spices, dyes, oil seeds, dairy products, pharmaceuticals etc. 
  • Main items of import by India from Pakistan are: copper and copper articles, edible fruits and nuts, cotton, salt, sulphur and earths and stones, organic chemicals, mineral fuels, plastic products, wool, glassware, raw hides & skin etc.

India revoked Pakistan’s Most Favoured Nation (MFN) status after the Pulwama attack in 2019, and following the Pahalgam terror attack in April 2025, India imposed a comprehensive ban on all imports from Pakistan-direct or indirect-citing national security concerns.

Multilateral Relations

India and Pakistan's multilateral relations are complex, primarily shaped by a history of conflict and limited cooperation. Despite being members of organizations like SAARC, their bilateral disputes, particularly regarding Kashmir, often hinder regional cooperation and effectiveness of these forums. Established to promote regional cooperation, SAARC has faced challenges due to India-Pakistan tensions. Several summits have been postponed due to disagreements, and bilateral issues have often overshadowed the organization's agenda. While India and Pakistan engage in various multilateral forums, their bilateral disputes frequently impact the dynamics and outcomes of these platforms.

  • Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO): Both are full members since 2017. Pakistan has blocked Indian proposals and boycotted certain events. India skipped SCO meetings in 2024 due to provocations.

Cultural Relations

India and Pakistan share deep cultural ties rooted in a shared history, language, and Indo-Aryan heritage. However, despite these strong cultural bonds, political and historical factors have created a complex and often strained relationship between the two nations. 

Both countries share linguistic and ethnic roots, particularly in the parts of North India and East Pakistan. They share a history marked by invaders, colonial rule and the partition of British India in 1947. Despite political tensions, cultural exchange continues through various avenues, including literature, music, and cinema, although often with limitations due to political circumstances. 

Several prominent Pakistani individuals have settled in India, including musicians, actors, and individuals involved in other fields. Notable examples include singer Adnan Sami, who became an Indian citizen, and the late singer Bade Ghulam Ali Khan. Other Pakistani artists who have found success in India include actors Fawad Khan and Mahira Khan, and singers Atif Aslam and Rahat Fateh Ali Khan. 

Cultural ties and sports events, particularly cricket, have occasionally provided a platform for improving people-to-people relations. Diplomatic initiatives like “cricket diplomacy” have been used in the past to thaw relations.

Religious pilgrimage has remained an area of cooperation, with both countries facilitating cross-border travel for pilgrims. The 1974 Bilateral Protocol on Visits to Religious Shrines allows for religious pilgrimages between India and Pakistan. Under the agreement, Indian Hindu and Sikh pilgrims visit 15 sites in Pakistan annually, while Pakistani pilgrims visit seven shrines in India.

  • The Kartarpur Corridor, inaugurated on November 9, 2019, is a visa-free border crossing that connects Dera Baba Nanak in India’s Punjab with Gurdwara Darbar Sahib in Kartarpur, Pakistan—one of Sikhism’s holiest sites where Guru Nanak Dev Ji spent his final years. This corridor allows Indian Sikh pilgrims to visit the shrine without a visa, fostering religious harmony and serving as a significant confidence-building measure between India and Pakistan.

Military Relations

India-Pakistan military relations are characterized by a history of conflict and rivalry, marked by multiple wars, skirmishes, and ongoing tensions. The core issues include territorial disputes, particularly over Kashmir, and cross-border terrorism. While both countries have engaged in attempts at military diplomacy and confidence-building measures (CBMs), these have been limited and often overshadowed by mutual distrust and hostility.

India possesses a significantly larger military and is ranked higher in global military power, while Pakistan's military is bolstered by Chinese capabilities.

In 2018, India and Pakistan participated in a joint military exercise for the first time, as part of the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO) "Peace Mission" exercise in Russia. This marked a significant moment as it was the first time their militaries engaged in a counter-terrorism exercise together, despite past collaborations in UN peacekeeping missions. The exercise, held in the Ural Mountains, aimed to enhance counter-terrorism capabilities and promote cooperation among SCO member states.

Conclusion

India and Pakistan relations are characterized by a complex mix of conflict and cooperation, with historical tensions and territorial disputes deeply rooted in their shared past. While dialogue and economic ties have seen periods of progress, the relationship remains fragile, with terrorism and cross-border issues frequently escalating tensions. The core challenge lies in finding a path towards lasting peace and stability through sustained dialogue and addressing core issues like Kashmir.