2014


Time: 3 Hours

Max Marks: 50


PART – A


Answer the following questions in one sentence each. (10 x 1 = 10)


Q1. Define State.

Ans. A state is a politically organized community with a defined territory, a permanent population, a government, and sovereignty.


Q2. What is an Authoritarian State?

Ans. Authoritarian State is similar to Dictatorship and the word dictator has been borrowed from ancient Rome. In Authoritarian State, there is one ruler who exercises unlimited or excessive authority. Such ruler establishes dictatorship.


Q3. Name the elements of State.

Ans. Modern State is constituted of four elements:

  1. Population – a group of people living together,
  2. Territory – a definite geographical area,
  3. Government – the machinery through which laws are made and enforced,
  4. Sovereignty – the supreme authority of the state, free from external control.


Q4. What do you understand by Duties?

Ans. The society calls upon the individuals to follow certain norms. These are obligations or duties. Gandhi Ji advocated for both rights and duties. If an individual has a right to life, it is also his duty that he should not take life of another.


Q5. Define Liberty.

Ans. Liberty is the freedom to make choices and act according to your own will without unreasonable restrictions. It does not mean the license to do anything you want; rather, it is the condition that allows you to develop your personality and potential fully.


According to Laski, “Liberty is the larger maintenance of that atmosphere in which men have the opportunity to be at their best selves.”


Q6. What is the positive concept of liberty?

Ans. The positive concept of liberty refers to “Liberty with reasonable restrictions.” It is in line with the social atmosphere and maintains that it is based on the socio-economic and political conditions of the society. It emphasises upon the social and economic aspects of liberty.


Q7. When was 'UN Declaration of Human Rights' made?

Ans. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 1948, defines Human Rights as rights derived from the inherent dignity of the human being. It was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on December 10, 1948, in the aftermath of World War II, as a response to the atrocities committed during the war.


Q8. What is multi-party system?

Ans. Multi-Party System is a system where several parties compete for power, and a single party often fails to win a majority. Governments are frequently formed by coalitions of multiple parties (e.g., India, France, Germany).


Q9. Define Democracy.

Ans. Democracy is a system of government in which power ultimately rests with the people. Citizens participate in decision-making either directly or through elected representatives. According to Seeley, “Democracy is a government in which everyone has a share.”


Q10. Who is known as the Father of Political Science?

Ans. Aristotle is known as the Father of Political Science.


PART – B


Answer the following questions in 4-5 lines each. Each question carries 4 marks. (4 x 4 = 16)


Q11. Discuss the correlation of Rights and Duties.

Ans. Rights and duties are deeply interconnected, and understanding their relationship is essential for a healthy society. Rights provide individuals with the opportunities and freedoms necessary for personal development, such as the right to equality, freedom, or education. But these rights can only be enjoyed fully when people also fulfil their duties, which help maintain order and protect the rights of others.


For instance, while citizens have the right to freedom of expression, they also have the duty not to spread misinformation or hatred. Similarly, enjoying the right to protection by the state means we must obey laws and cooperate with authorities. In everyday life, duties like respecting others, keeping public spaces clean, and participating in democratic processes directly support our own rights and the rights of those around us.


If people claim rights without performing their duties, society becomes unbalanced and conflicts increase. On the other hand, when citizens take their duties seriously, everyone’s rights become more secure and meaningful. Therefore, rights and duties are complementary. They depend on each other and together create a fair, responsible, and peaceful social environment.


Q12. Comment upon the nature of Political Science.

Ans. Political Science has a rich and flexible nature because it deals with something as complex as human society and power. It is considered both a science and an art. It is scientific because it uses methods like observation, research, and comparison to understand political behaviour, elections, governance, and public policies. At the same time, it is an art because it involves judgement, interpretation, and understanding human values such as justice, equality, and liberty, things that cannot be measured with numbers alone.


Another important aspect of its nature is that it is both normative and empirical. This means Political Science does not only describe what is happening in politics (empirical), but also discusses what ought to happen (normative). For example, it studies how governments actually function, but also debates the best way governments should function to promote fairness and welfare.


Political Science is also interdisciplinary, meaning it overlaps with many other subjects. It uses history to understand political events, economics to see how resources shape power, sociology to study society’s influence on politics, and psychology to understand political behaviour. This makes the subject broad and holistic.


In essence, the nature of Political Science is practical, analytical, and value-oriented. It helps us understand political systems, encourages informed citizenship, and guides us in thinking about how societies can be organized in a more just and effective way.


Q13. Write a short note on liberal theory of property.

Ans. Liberal theory of property is based on the basic assumptions that property is the reward of one’s labour. The justification of private property is that it gives incentive to labour. Any individual who is capable and hardworking can accumulate property in a free market society.


Among the liberal thinkers, John Locke was the chief exponent of the theory of property as the fruit of labour. His view was supported by various liberal writers like Adam Smith, JS Mill and Green.


Locke made property not only natural right but also legal right. He also imposed certain restrictions on the Right to Property –

  1. One must leave enough for others.
  2. Private property can only be that in which man has mixed his own labour.


The law of nature provided that state was a system of rights and obligations. The natural rights included the rights to life, liberty, and property. The greatest of these rights was the right to property. Property was an essential attribute of personality.


Q14. Why did 'Behaviouralism' emerge?

Ans. Behaviouralism emerged as a major movement in Political Science largely due to a combination of dissatisfaction with the older, traditional approach and the desire to make the study of politics more scientific and empirical. It gained prominence primarily in the United States after World War II.


Key reasons for the emergence of Behaviouralism:


1. Dissatisfaction with Traditionalism

The prevailing traditional approach focused heavily on studying formal institutions (like constitutions, legislatures, and laws), history, and political philosophy (what ought to be).


  1. Failure to Explain Reality: Traditionalism failed to adequately explain why political systems actually behaved the way they did, especially during crises like the World Wars and the rise of totalitarianism. Formal rules (like a constitution) often differed greatly from real-world political practice.


  1. Non-Scientific Nature: Critics felt the old methods were too subjective, descriptive, and normative (value-based), lacking the objective rigor required to call Political Science a true "science."


2. The Desire for a Scientific Discipline

Behaviouralists wanted to transform Political Science by adopting the methods of the natural sciences (like physics) or other successful social sciences (like sociology and psychology).


  1. Focus on the Observable: They insisted on studying only observable political behaviour (like voting, protests, decision-making, etc.) because only this could be measured and verified.


  1. Empirical Verification: The goal was to establish generalisations and theories that could be tested with real-world, quantifiable data, rather than relying on philosophical speculation.


3. Impact of World War II and Research

World War II exposed the practical deficiencies of the traditional approach. Political scientists were involved in large-scale studies for the war effort, which highlighted the effectiveness of using scientific methods, statistics, and large-scale surveys to predict human actions.


  1. New Tools and Funding: The post-war era saw an increase in funding and the refinement of new tools (like survey research and statistical analysis), making it possible to conduct the kind of rigorous, large-scale empirical research that Behaviouralism required.


4. Influence of Other Social Sciences

The interdisciplinary nature of the movement was crucial. Behaviouralism borrowed heavily from disciplines like Sociology and Psychology to analyse the factors such as personality, group dynamics, and culture, that truly influence an individual's political choices. The focus shifted from studying the structure of the institution to studying the actions of the individual political actor.


PART – C


Answer the following questions in 400 words each. Attempt any three. Each question carries 8 marks. (3 x 8 = 24)


Q15. Give a detailed comparison of democratic and authoritarian theories of State.

Ans.

1. Foundations: Source of Power and Legitimacy

The most crucial difference lies in where each theory locates sovereignty (supreme power) and legitimacy (the right to rule).


  1. Democratic Theory: This theory is rooted in popular sovereignty. The State's power ultimately belongs to the people (the demos), and its legitimacy stems from the consent of the governed. The government is seen as a trustee of the people, chosen through free and fair elections. In a nutshell: Rule by the people, for the people.


  1. Authoritarian Theory: This theory rejects popular sovereignty. Power is typically concentrated in a single leader, a small elite group (like a military junta or ruling party), or even a specific ideology (e.g., Theocracy). Legitimacy is often claimed through performance (delivering economic growth, stability), tradition, or a compelling ideology. In a nutshell: Rule by a select few, justified by 'results' or 'destiny.'


2. Governance: Rule of Law vs. Rule by Law

How power is exercised provides a clear contrast between the two models.


a. Individual Rights:

  1. Democratic Theory - Prioritized and constitutionally protected (e.g., freedom of speech, assembly, press). Civil liberties are inalienable.
  2. Authoritarian Theory - Subordinated to the State's goals or collective will. Rights are granted by the regime and can be restricted/revoked.


b. Rule of Law:

  1. Democratic Theory - Supremacy of Law. Everyone, including the rulers, is subject to the law. There is an independent judiciary to ensure accountability.
  2. Authoritarian Theory - Rule by Law. The law is an instrument of the ruling elite, used to enforce their will and maintain control. The judiciary is not independent.


c. Separation of Powers:

  1. Democratic Theory - Essential mechanism (legislative, executive, judicial) to prevent the concentration and abuse of power (Checks and Balances).
  2. Authoritarian Theory - Concentration of Power in the executive or ruling party. Sub-units merely implement the will of the centre.


3. Participation and Accountability

The role of the citizen and the political process is fundamentally different.


  1. Democratic State - Encourages wide political participation (voting, forming groups, protest). Accountability is institutionalized through regular, competitive elections, legislative oversight, and a free press.
  2. Authoritarian State - Political participation is limited and carefully controlled, often only used to mobilize support for the regime (e.g., staged rallies). Accountability to the people is non-existent; leaders are held accountable only to the ruling elite or themselves. Opposition is suppressed or outright banned.


In conclusion, the democratic State envisions a system where the individual is sovereign and the State is a servant accountable to the citizenry. The authoritarian State, conversely, operates on the principle of the State's sovereignty over the individual, where stability and obedience are prioritized over freedom and dissent.


Q16. Discuss the attributes of sovereignty.

Ans. Sovereignty describes the supreme and independent authority of the State. Although its meaning has evolved over time, certain core attributes continue to define how sovereignty operates. These attributes help us understand why the State is considered the highest political organisation in society.


1. Supremacy

The first key attribute of sovereignty is its supreme nature. Within its territory, the State has the highest and final authority. No individual, institution, or group can legally challenge or override the decisions of a sovereign State. This supremacy ensures order and prevents competing centres of power from destabilising governance. For example, even powerful actors like corporations or religious bodies operate under the laws of the State.


2. Absoluteness

Traditionally, sovereignty was viewed as absolute, meaning it was not subject to any external or internal limitations. Thinkers like Bodin and Hobbes argued that the State must have undivided authority to maintain peace. However, in modern democracies this absoluteness is moderated by constitutional checks, judicial review, and international norms. Still, the idea remains that the State exercises ultimate legal power within its jurisdiction.


3. Universality

Sovereignty applies to all individuals and organisations within the State. No one is exempt from its laws unless specifically granted immunity through constitutional or legal provisions. This universality reinforces equality before the law and strengthens the legitimacy of the State’s authority.


4. Indivisibility

An important attribute is that sovereignty cannot be divided. A State cannot have two separate supreme authorities at the same time. Even in federal systems, where powers are shared between central and regional governments, sovereignty ultimately rests with the constitution or the people as a single source. Indivisibility ensures coherence in the exercise of power.


5. Permanence

Sovereignty is more enduring than any temporary government. Governments may change through elections, revolutions, or reforms, but sovereignty continues as long as the State itself exists. This permanence gives political systems stability and continuity across generations.


6. Independence

Externally, sovereignty implies independence from foreign control or domination. A sovereign State conducts its own foreign policy, enters international agreements voluntarily, and defends its territorial integrity. While globalisation creates interdependence, states still retain the right to make autonomous decisions.


7. Imprescriptibility

Imprescriptibility is the state of being immune from prescription, meaning a right, quality, or property cannot be lost or forfeited over time, even if it is not exercised for a period. If sovereignty doesn’t exercise his sovereignty for a certain period of time, it does not lead to the destruction of sovereignty. It lasts as long as the state lasts.


8. Inalienability

By inalienability we mean, that the state cannot part with its sovereignty. Sovereignty can no more be alienated than a tree can alienate its right to sprout or a man can transfer his life or personality to another self-destruction.


9. Originality

By originality we mean that the sovereignty wields power by virtue of his own right and not by virtue of any mercy.


These attributes collectively describe the unique authority of the State. Understanding them helps explain how sovereignty shapes political order, legitimacy, and the functioning of modern governments.


Q17. Explain the salient features of Post-Behaviouralism.

Ans. David Easton who had at one stage enumerated 8 characteristics of Behaviouralism and called them intellectual foundation stones of the movement, now came out with 7 major characteristics of Post-Behaviouralism.

He describes these as the credo of relevance.


1. Substance is Important than Technique.

Substance must come before any consideration of tools and techniques. Foremost attention should be paid to the choice of purposeful, relevant and meaningful problems of the society. It is better to be vague than non-relevant, or precise.


2. Emphasis upon Social Change.

Social change, and not preservation of the status quo, should be its motto. Previously, Behaviouralism mostly confined itself to description and analysis of facts, and overlooked broader social context. As such, in many cases, they could not understand the contextual meaning of facts.


3. To Find Out Reliable Solutions of Contemporary Problems and Face Reality.

Scholars should take up social conflicts, deepening fears, and worries about the future as their subjects of study, and try to find out their solutions. They have to face hard realities of politics, and not to run away from them.


4. Values are Part and Parcel of the Study of Politics.

Unlike the past, values should be given a central place and made the basis of choice of problems, research, and evaluation. Scientism, value-neutrality, sophistication, etc., has to be given up. They merely transform the scholars into technicians of Political Science.


5. Major Role of Intellectuals in Protection of Human Values.

The main task of scholars was now to protect and defend human values and seek welfare of the whole world. Failing which they degrade themselves merely to mechanics, technicians and propellers of the mechanical structure of the present society. They should rise above bare Behaviouralism, and labour to defend human values.


6. Political Science is both an Action Science and Contemplative Science.

To know is to bear the responsibility for acting and to act is to engage in reshaping society. In place of sheer contemplation, the scholars must come forward with action to actualise the contents of their knowledge.


7. Politicisation of the Profession is Inescapable and Desirable.

It pleads for the politicisation of the professions. In other words, the intellectuals must discover proper goals for the society and make it move to realise them. They have a positive role to play, and organise themselves to undertake the tasks.


Thus, Post-Behaviouralism intends to transform the academic, professional and valuational contents of Political Science. The latter has to cater both to the social as well as academic needs of society.


Q18. Discuss the interdependence of liberty, equality and justice.

Ans. Liberty, equality and justice are often described as the “trinity of modern political values.” While each concept has its own identity, they are so closely linked that strengthening one usually supports the others, and weakening one can distort the entire moral structure of society.


Liberty, at its core, is the freedom to act, express, and pursue one’s goals without unreasonable interference. But liberty can only flourish where people have the actual capacity to use it. If economic or social inequalities prevent certain groups from receiving education, employment, or political representation, their theoretical liberty becomes meaningless. For example, the right to vote is only truly valuable when all citizens have equal access to participate. Thus, liberty requires a baseline of equality so that individuals can genuinely exercise their freedoms.


Equality, on the other hand, recognises that all individuals possess equal moral worth. It seeks to ensure that privileges and opportunities are not reserved for a few. However, equality does not mean uniformity. People have different abilities, aspirations and life choices. If a state imposes rigid equality by suppressing differences, it risks curtailing liberty. A society must therefore allow diversity and individual expression while preventing discrimination or domination. Equality’s purpose is not to eliminate freedom but to make freedom more accessible and meaningful for all.


This delicate relationship is guided and moderated by justice, which acts as the principled framework balancing both liberty and equality. Justice asks not only what people should receive but why they should receive it. It evaluates when liberty must be restricted—for example, banning hate speech or harmful actions—and when equality needs active support, such as through affirmative action, welfare schemes, or legal protections. Justice ensures that the pursuit of liberty does not result in exploitation and that efforts to achieve equality do not slide into excessive control or uniformity.


Moreover, justice also addresses historical disadvantages. A society may grant equal legal rights, but without corrective measures, those who were marginalised for generations cannot compete on equal terms. In such cases, justice supports equality to create fair starting points, thereby allowing liberty to be exercised meaningfully across social groups.


In essence, liberty empowers individuals, equality ensures fair access to that empowerment, and justice harmonises both by establishing rules that uphold fairness, protect rights, and correct imbalances. A society committed to all three values is more likely to achieve social harmony, dignity for all, and a political order grounded in both freedom and fairness.


“Liberty and equality are the two pillars of justice — neither can stand alone, and justice ensures that both are applied fairly to create a just society.”