Table of Contents

PART – A

Q1. What do you mean by International Relations?

Ans. International Relations (IR) is the study of interactions between sovereign states, non-state actors (like NGOs and corporations), and international organizations. It explores the dynamics of power, conflict, cooperation, and foreign policy, analysing how these relationships shape global governance, security, economics, and law.

Q2. Mention any two limits of National Powers.

Ans. Two limitations of National Power are:

  1. Collective Security Principle – Collective security is there to manage national power. It is based on the principle that states collectively achieve peace and security in case of violation by any one state or states. It is a device of power management and its purpose is to maintain international peace and security by collective efforts of all the states.
  2. Disarmament of Arms Control – This is a mechanism to limit national power. Arms control refers to reduction or control arms race through international agreements and policies. Disarmament means abolishing any ammunition possessed till date.

Q3. What is Collective Security System?

Ans. It is a security arrangement in the political, regional, or global arena in which a state exerts that security of one is security of all. Therefore, the states in a group collectively cooperate to provide security to all in case of any threat or breach of peace.

Q4. Any two determinants of foreign policy.

Ans. Geography and National Capacity (Internal Factors); International Organisations and World Public Opinion (External Factors).

Q5. Define Détente.

Ans. Détente is a French word which means relaxation of tensions. It was used to describe the normalisation of relations between the USA and the USSR in international relations. During the 1970s, both superpowers decided to overcome the cold war and relax their relations into the era of détente. But a new cold war was started on early 1980s. Fortunately, the new cold war got replaced by new détente in 1987. The new détente played a big role in ending the cold war in international relations.

Q6. Any two implications of the collapse of USSR.

Ans. Two implications of the collapse of USSR:

  1. End of the Cold War - The collapse of the USSR marked the end of the Cold War, the decades-long ideological and geopolitical rivalry between the United States and the Soviet Union. With the disappearance of the Soviet Union as a superpower, the world moved away from the bipolar global order to a more unipolar system with the United States as the sole superpower. 
  2. Disintegration of the Soviet Union - The collapse of the USSR resulted in the emergence of independent states, including Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, and others. The disintegration of the Soviet Union led to political and economic transformations, the establishment of new governments, and the realignment of borders in the post-Soviet space. 

Q7. What do you mean by Third World?

Ans. The concept of the "Third World" originated during the Cold War era and referred to a group of countries that were not aligned with either the capitalist "First World” (led by the United States and its allies) or the communist "Second World" (led by the Soviet Union and its allies). The term "Third World" was initially used to describe countries that were newly independent from colonial rule and faced common challenges of poverty, underdevelopment, and political instability.

Q8. What is Bi-Polarity?

Ans. Bipolarity refers to a power structure in international relations characterized by the dominance of two major powers or superpowers. In a bipolar system, these two powers have significantly greater military, economic, and political influence than other states or actors, leading to a relative balance of power between them. 

Q9. Define Neo colonialism.

Ans. Neo-colonialism refers to the continued economic, political, and cultural dominance of former colonial powers and other developed countries over former colonies and developing nations, despite their formal independence. It is characterized by indirect forms of control and exploitation, often through economic mechanisms and unequal power dynamics.

Q10. What do you mean by MNCs?

Ans. A multinational corporation (MNC), also known as a multinational enterprise (MNE), is a company that operates and has business activities in multiple countries. These corporations have a presence in various countries beyond their home country and conduct business operations, such as manufacturing, sales, and services, in multiple locations worldwide.

PART – B

Q11. Explain theory of Balance of Power.

Ans. In international relations, BOP is defined as the distribution of equal powers among the nations. When the power is more or less equally distributed, then no state can eliminate others and no state feels threatened.

Balance of Power as described by some eminent personalities:

  • Sidney Fay describes it as just equilibrium so that none of the states become strong enough to exert its will or force on another state.
  • Inis Claude explains it as, “a system in which nations regulate their power relations without any interference by any big power.

The logic behind BOP theory is that there is no world government. And each state has to rely on its own resources and strategies to prevent being attacked from another. So, when a nation faces threat from a powerful country, it either mobilises its own resources or gets into alliance with other states, so as to balance power.

Nature of Balance of Power

Following are some points describing nature of Balance of Power:

  1. Temporary and Unstable – BOP is shot lived and countries constantly change their alliances and allegiances to serve their national interest.
  2. Requires active intervention – BOP is not a gift of nature. It is to be built and maintained with active intervention from political leaders.
  3. War tests the efficacy of BOP – BOP prevents the outbreak of war and if a war happens, BOP is broken.
  4. Not a device of peace – BOP happens because of the volatile international situation. It is no guarantee of peace.
  5. Big powers are the main players – Strong powers are the main players in creating and maintaining BOP, whereas small powers are either allied parties or spectators, or victims in the play.
  6. Requires multiple states – For BOP to happen, it requires multiple states to maintain power relations.
  7. National interest is the priority – It can be adopted by any state and national interest is the basis for deciding it.

Methods of Balance of Power:

There are various methods of Balance of Power. Some are as follows: -

  1. Compensation – It is mainly territorial compensation. A state gets divided or annexed if it is considered dangerous for the balance. Colonial powers used their methods to divide the territories amongst themselves if there was a threat to their colonial possessions and to balance among them. Prior to World War – I, European imperial powers divided and caved out new borders of small states, especially in the Eastern Europe and the Balkans.
  2. Alliances and Counter Alliances – A group of nations enter into alliance to counter the threat and secure their position, and enhance their power in international system. Usually, a formation of an alliance leads to counter alliance. During cold war, USA formed NATO, SEATO, CENTO and Soviet Union formed Warsaw pact.
  3. Intervention and Non – intervention - It’s a dictatorial method and carried out to change or maintain as desired situation in a country. USSR’s intervention in Afghanistan, American intervention in Cuba, North Korea, Vietnam, Iraq are few examples.
  4. Divide and Rule – It’s a diverse measure to control and weaken the opponent. For example: China has been trying to breach or beak the unity among the ASEAN nations, so that they do not stand united against its aggressive moves in the South China Sea.
  5. Buffer Zones – These are neutral areas that separate two big powers which are generally adversaries. Each superpower then tries to exert influence on the buffer zone and take its control leading to struggle between the two big powers in the neutral zone.
  6. Armaments and Disarmaments – To secure themselves in the international system, countries compete in arms race by accumulating weapons for their defence. This can be dangerous to world peace and security, and can lead to war. Currently, disarmament has gained traction where countries are asked to reduce and gradually eliminate the use of weapons as defence and offense mechanism. Treaties like Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT), Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons, asks for banning weapons.
  7. Balancer – This concept is used less frequently now, given the unipolarity or mutli-polarity syndrome in the world order. But earlier, Britain played the role of a balancer in Europe. A balancer plays a neutral role and is not allied to any of the contending party. It negotiates and mediates between the two, so as to keep balance.

Q12. Discuss New Cold War.

Ans. The "New Cold War" (roughly 1979–1985) was an intensive reawakening of tensions between the US and USSR, marking the abrupt collapse of 1970s détente. Triggered by the 1979 Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, this period saw escalated arms races, proxy wars, and severe diplomatic breakdown, largely fuelled by differing interpretations of détente, third-world conflicts, and increased security concerns.

Causes of New Cold War

There were many developments in international relations that gave a setback to détente and helped in re-originating Cold War:

  1. Changes in the US Foreign Policy under President Reagan –

The American decision:

  1. To re-secure the US status as number 1 power in world politics.
  2. To reject Nixon-Kissinger view that the only alternative to détente was war.
  3. To stop over-selling détente, gave a big blow to détente spirit.
  1. Irresponsible Soviet View – The Reagan administration held the view that Soviet conduct in Angola, Middle-East, and UN was irresponsible and detrimental to the US interest and the spirit of détente.
  2. The US attempts to cultivate relations with Eastern Europe and China, with a view to check Soviet influence - The US Foreign Policy even during 1970s involved the attempt to increase the division between China and Soviet Union, with a view to secure a strategic advantage vis-à-vis the Soviet Union by cultivating relations with China.
  3. The US role in Nicaragua, El Salvador and Grenada – The US attempt to forcibly maintain its superior influence over these states was strongly opposed by soviets. They regarded it as renewed American attempts at the containment of the spread of communism.
  4. Soviet intervention in Afghanistan – The soviet’s attempts at keeping leftists in power in Afghanistan and the subsequent soviet interventions in Afghanistan were regarded by the US as a big violation of détente which was designed to increase soviet power in the gulf region. America once again became convinced that the ultimate aim of soviet policy in the West Asia was to reach the warm waters of Persian Gulf. It was regarded as a serious threat to American interest in the region as well as to American relation with the gulf countries. The soviet action in Afghanistan definitely gave a big blow, almost a death blow to the détente of 1970s.
  5. US policies designed to counter soviet influence – Apprehending a serious soviet threat to American interest and power in Asia, the Reagan administration decided: -
  1. To strengthen its naval base at Diego Garcia by making it a nuclear base as well as the main base for organising and strengthening the defence and security of Persian Gulf.
  2. To strengthen and arm Pakistan as a frontline state against threatened soviet expansionism in West Asia.
  3. To organise and deploy rapid deployment force in Persian Gulf.
  4. To strengthen Washington-Beijing-Islamabad-Tokyo cooperation with a view to counteract the soviet role in Asia and to check the growing Indi-Soviet and Soviet-Vietnam relations and Moscow-Kabul access.
  5. To go in for the Strategic Defence Initiative Program, popularly known as Star War Program or the Militarization of Space Program.
  6. To keep at bay, the SALT-II agreement.
  7. To install perishing, cruising and MX missiles in Western Europe with a view to strengthen its security against soviet threat.
  8. To go in for an increased production of more and more sophisticated weapons, to secure a superior position arms race and to refrain from Geneva talks on disarmaments.
  9. To increase American power and influence in Indian Ocean.
  10. To give extensive aid to Kenya and Somalia.
  11. Boycott the Olympic Games in Moscow in 1980.

All these US policies were criticised by Soviet Union as these were policies designed to harm soviet interest and measures designed to revitalise Cold War in international relations.

  1. Soviet Policies designed to check US influence in different parts of the globe –   Several soviet policies were strongly opposed by the Americans as these were regarded by them as policies designed for limiting US role in world politics. The following soviet policies were mainly responsible for inviting strong reaction from the USA: -
  1. Soviet backed Cuba’s role in Angola.
  2. Soviet intervention in Afghanistan and its decision to keep its forces in this strategically important area of Asia.
  3. Soviet backed Cuba’s role in Ethiopia.
  4. Presence of soviet brigade in Cuba.
  5. Deployment of SS-20, new medium range soviet missiles in Eastern European countries.
  6. Soviet help and support to leftists in Latin American states.
  7. Increasing soviet influence in West Asia and growing friendship between Moscow and New Delhi and Moscow and Hanoi (Capital of Vietnam).
  8. Soviet decision to strengthen its military base in Africa.
  9. Increasing soviet influence in Indian Ocean.
  10. Soviet policy of increasing its influence in West Asia and Gulf.

All these soviet policies were viewed by the Americans as dangerous developments which posed a serious danger to American interest in world politics in general and Asia, Africa and Latin America in particular.

Along with these factors, the failure of attempts towards disarmament, the destabilization of peace in West Asia as a result of the continued Iran-Iraq war, the failure of disarmament front, the failure of Geneva talks, the failure of two summit meetings between the US President Reagan and the Soviet Leader Mikhail Gorbachev, the increasing arms race between the two superpowers, the extensive militarisation of Pakistan by the US, the continued Soviet presence in Afghanistan, the Soviet plan for Asian security and American apprehension, inability of the rich nations to accommodate poor developing nations etc. all combined together to end the détente of the 1970s, and to bring back Cold War in international relations.

The continued rift between China and USSR added a new dimension to New Cold War. The emerging Washington-Beijing-Pindi-Tokyo Axis versus Moscow-Hanoi-Kabul-New Delhi Axis came as very dangerous developments.

The increased complexity of international relations resulted in ever increasing gap between North and South, the reduced role of the UNO, the inability of NAM to pursue the attainment of several desired objectives, all combined to give the New Cold War era a more dangerous outlook.

Q13. Explain in brief major causes of the rise of Third World.

Ans. The concept of the "Third World" originated during the Cold War era and referred to a group of countries that were not aligned with either the capitalist "First World” (led by the United States and its allies) or the communist "Second World" (led by the Soviet Union and its allies). The term "Third World" was initially used to describe countries that were newly independent from colonial rule and faced common challenges of poverty, underdevelopment, and political instability.

The rise of the Third World can be attributed to several factors: 

  1. Decolonization - The process of decolonization, which took place primarily in the mid-20th century, led to the emergence of numerous newly independent countries in Africa, Asia, the Caribbean, and the Pacific. These countries sought to establish their own identities and pursue socio-economic development after centuries of colonial rule. 
  2. Non-Aligned Movement - Many newly independent countries formed the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) in the 1950s and 1960s. NAM aimed to promote the interests of developing nations, maintain neutrality during the Cold War, and advocate for global justice and equality. It provided a platform for Third World countries to collaborate, share experiences, and assert their collective voice on international issues. 
  3. Economic Development and Modernization - The rise of the Third World was marked by efforts to promote economic development and modernization. Many countries implemented policies aimed at industrialization, infrastructure development, and improving education and healthcare systems. This included initiatives such as import substitution industrialization, agrarian reforms, and investment in social welfare programs. 
  4. Global South-South Cooperation - Third World countries increasingly engaged in South-South cooperation, fostering economic, political, and cultural ties among themselves. This involved exchanging knowledge, technology, and resources, as well as promoting regional integration and solidarity. Institutions like the Group of 77 (G77) and the African Union (AU) played key roles in promoting cooperation among developing countries. 
  5. Resource Wealth and Geopolitical Significance - Some Third World countries possessed abundant natural resources, such as oil, minerals, and agricultural products, which attracted the attention of global powers. The strategic significance of these resources in the global economy contributed to the rise of certain Third World nations as key players in international relations. 
  6. Globalization and Changing Dynamics - The forces of globalization, advancements in technology, and changing geopolitical dynamics have also influenced the rise of the Third World. The integration of global markets and the emergence of new economic powers have created opportunities for developing countries to participate in global trade, attract foreign investment, and exert greater influence on the international stage.

Q14. Describe multi polarity in International Power Structure.

Ans. Multipolarity in international relations refers to a power structure where power and influence are distributed among multiple major actors or states. In a multipolar system, there are several significant powers that possess the capability to shape global politics, security, and economics. 

Features of Multipolarity

Key features of multipolarity include: 

  1. Distribution of Power - Power is dispersed among multiple major actors, each having significant military, economic, and political capabilities. These actors can exert influence and pursue their interests independently, leading to a more balanced power structure. 
  2. Competition and Rivalry - In a multipolar system, competition and rivalry among major powers are more pronounced. These powers may compete for resources, influence, and strategic advantages, leading to geopolitical manoeuvring, conflicts of interest, and shifting alliances. 
  3. Formation of Alliances - Multipolarity often leads to the formation of various alliances and coalitions. States may align themselves with other powers to balance against potential threats, enhance their own security, or promote their interests. These alliances can be fluid and may change based on evolving circumstances. 
  4. Complex Diplomacy - Diplomacy becomes more complex in a multipolar system. Multiple power centres with diverging interests and perspectives create a dynamic diplomatic environment, requiring negotiation, compromise, and the management of complex relationships among states. 
  5. Regional Power Dynamics - Multipolarity is often reflected in regional power dynamics. Different regions may have their own centres of power, with regional powers exerting influence and competing for regional dominance.  Regional conflicts and rivalries can influence global dynamics. 
  6. Potential for Power Shifts - In a multipolar system, power shifts and realignments are more likely. Changes in the relative capabilities of major actors can lead to shifts in the power balance, altering the dynamics of the international system. Emerging powers or declining powers may rise or fall in influence over time.
  7. Cooperation and Conflict - Multipolarity can involve both cooperation and conflict among major powers. While competition is inherent in a multipolar system, states may also engage in cooperative efforts, such as multilateral negotiations, trade agreements, or joint initiatives, to address shared challenges or pursue common goals. 

PART – C

Q15. Discuss in detail various emerging trends in International Relations.

Ans. Following are the trends that emerged with time in the context of international relations:

  1. The End of European Dominance – Before or during World War – II, Europe was a very powerful nation both economically and on military basis. It held supremacy all over the world. But after the end of the World War – II, its supremacy gets destroyed because it faced huge economic loss as world war was mainly by Europe. Along with this, independence movements among the colonies of Europe got momentum and its colonisation got weak and Europe’s supremacy shifted to the USA and the USSR.
  2. Advent of Nuclear Warfare – On 6th August 1945, a bomb was dropped on Hiroshima, and on 9th August 1945, a bomb was dropped on Nagasaki in Japan. This led to Japan’s surrender and the end of second world war. Other nations also started to create new atomic bombs, like the USA and USSR, which were in conflict with each other. France, China, India, and Pakistan started nuclear testing. This increased the danger of disaster in the world.
  3. Awakening of nations of Asia and Africa – The awakening of independence struggles in Asia and Africa posed challenges to colonial rule. After the Word War – II, Britain became weaker, making it weak administratively and militarily. Suddenly, there was an increase in membership of the United Nations (UNO), which reached the present number of 193.
  4. Expansion of Communism – Countries like Germany, China, and Italy saw the expansion of communism. Other countries, like India were under the influence of the USSR.
  5. Military Alliances – After World War - II, new military alliances emerged in the world such as NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organisation), led by the USA, in 1949. Its main aim was to stop the expansion of communism. In response, the USSR signed the Warsaw Pact in 1955. Its main aim was to provide protection from the atrocities of NATO. Another military alliance was SEATO (South East Asian Treaty Organisation), which was formed by South East Asian Nations in 1954 in collaboration with the USA. There was another military alliance named as CENTO (Central Treaty Organisation) formed by USA in 1955.
  6. Advent of Cold War – The result of World War - II was seen in the form of Cold War.  The USA and the USSR were majorly involved in the cold war. The USA supported capitalism, while the USSR supported socialism and communism. All means were used to downgrade one another without the use of arms and ammunition.
  7. Non-Alignment – After World War - II, many countries got independence. These newly independent countries had the option, whether to join USA or USSR. They joined neither of them and adopted the policy of non-alignment. These were nations that supported equal peace and world stability. The Non Alignment Movement (NAM) emerged in 1961 at Belgrade, led by Nasser of Egypt, Nehru of India, and Tito of Yugoslavia.
  8. End of Imperialism and Communism – Imperialism became a trend in the 16th century and continued until the Word War – II. Colonial nations started growing weaker, and nations became independent. International politics became global politics, and the focal point spread to various nations in Asia, Latin America, etc. With the decrease in European military and power, other superpowers emerged.
  9. Decrease in the number of superpowers and emergence of new powers – Before and during World War - II, the number of superpowers were more in general. Every country of Europe like Germany, France, Spain was a superpower. After World War - II, the superpowers of the European continent decreased, and only two superpowers remained in the world – USA and USSR.  With the ever changing and evolving global scenario, new powers emerged in the 21st century, like India, Brazil, and China.
  10. Shift from Bipolarity to Multi Centralism – From 1945 to 1989, there were two superpowers. Now, many nations have nuclear power. Even if they are not nuclear powers, they have other form of power, such as economic and political influence.
  11. Increase in importance of 3rd world countries – Third world countries now have a voice in international politics. They have organised themselves in many ways, like SAARC and ASEAN.
  12. North-South Conflict - Carbon emission is a major problem between the North and South. Most nations in the North are developed, while the south consists of either developing nations or underdeveloped nations. Northern Hemisphere countries try to dominate the Southern Hemisphere countries. But nowadays, southern countries are also increasing their power and influencing the world politics, international trade etc. due to which conflict takes place between the two.
  13. Increase in the number of members in UNO – The members of the UNO increased from 51 to 193. The number of developing nations is greater. Permanent members of the UNSC are allied nations. Now, there is demand by developing countries to become permanent members.
  14. Neo - Colonialism – It is a relatively new and growing concept. Nowadays, countries are not making other countries their colonies directly, rather they are making them their colonies by way of political means, or economic means such as by having a control over trade or market. It is called neo-colonialism.
  15. Global Terrorism – Terrorism has been on a rise in the whole world. It is not limited to a particular country now. It greatly affects the relations among countries.

Q16. Explain meaning and nature of Diplomacy.

Ans. The word Diplomacy originally came from ancient Greek term “Diploma”, meaning “an object folded into two.” This refers to a document allowing one to travel or to be permitted special privileges, often related to the role of a diplomate. As time went on, diplomacy became more concerned with International Relations. The 18th century French term “Diplomate” refer to a person representing their country abroad.

Diplomacy is the process and practice of communication and negotiation between actors in international system with the aim of achieving the goals and resolving their conflicts and disputes. It involves various method and tools such as dialogue, persuasion, compromise, and coercion to influence and shape behaviour and outcomes of other states.

The definition of diplomacy can vary depending on perspectives and approach of the scholar or practitioner but it can be commonly said that, “Diplomacy is the management of International Relations by negotiation, the method by which these relations are adjusted and managed by ambassadors and employees, the business and the art of diplomats.” Morgenthau referred to diplomacy as the “brain of the state power”.

  • Sir Ernest Satow defined diplomacy as "the application of intelligence and tact to the conduct of official relations between the governments of independent states". As a leading authority on international relations, his definition emphasizes using skilled, peaceful negotiation to manage foreign affairs, focusing on the professional and strategic communication between nations.
  • Quincy Wright defines diplomacy at 2 levels – in the proper sense and in the special sense. In proper sense, it means the employment of tactics, shrewdness and skills in any negotiations or transactions. And in special sense, it means the art of negotiation in order to achieve the maximum of group objectives with a minimum cost, within a system of politics in which war is a possibility.
  • Organski considers diplomacy as, “one of the key instruments of national policy used to manage international relations, primarily to serve a nation’s interest.”

Nicolson gives 5 different meanings of diplomacy:

  1. Synonym for foreign policy.
  2. Negotiation
  3. The machinery by which such negotiations is carried out.
  4. A branch of the foreign service.
  5. An abstract quality or gift, which in its best sense implies skill in the conduct of international negotiations and in its worst sense, implies the more gutful aspects of the act.

Types of Diplomacy

Diplomacy is not monolithic or homogenous, but rather diverse and complex.

It can be classified and analysed as:

  1. Traditional Diplomacy – It is based on the formal and official relations between states and that is conducted by the professional and accredited representatives of the state, such as diplomats and ambassadors.
  2. Modern Diplomacy – It is based on informal and unofficial relations between various actors such as non-state actors, civil society and the public and that is conducted by the various agents and channels, such as NGOs, media and celebrities.
  3. International Diplomacy – It refers to the negotiations and interactions between states and other actors on the global stage, aimed at achieving specific goals and advancing national interests.

Nature of Diplomacy:

Diplomacy has some distinctive features that make it different from other types of communication and negotiations.

  1. Bilateral – Diplomacy is usually bilateral, meaning that it involves two actors or parties and that it aims to establish and maintain a natural and reciprocal relationship between them.
  2. Multilateral – Diplomacy can also be multilateral, meaning that involves more than two parties or actors and that it aims to create and sustain a collective and cooperative relationship among them.
  3. Continuous – Diplomacy is continuous, meaning that it is not a one-time or occasional event but rather a long-term and ongoing process and that it requires constant and consistent engagement and interaction between the actors or parties.
  4. Flexible – Diplomacy is flexible, meaning that it is not rigid or fixed but rather adaptable and adjustable and that it can change and modify its methods and tools, depending on the situation and actor or party.
  5. Confidentiality & Discretion – While modern diplomacy is more transparent, a core nature is maintaining confidentiality to ensure candid discussions, which helps in navigating delicate issues before making public announcements.
  6. Based on Reciprocity – Diplomatic relations are fundamentally built on reciprocity, where privileges, immunities, and concessions are exchanged based on mutual respect and similar treatment.
  7. Representation & Communication – Diplomacy involves agents (diplomats) officially representing their state to another, serving as the primary channel of communication to communicate policy, deliver messages, and build rapport.
  8. Peaceful Conflict Resolution – Its primary purpose is to settle disputes between states through negotiation, persuasion, and compromise rather than force, playing a key role in maintaining international peace.
  9. Goal-Oriented (National Interest – Diplomacy is not aimless; it is geared towards protecting and promoting specific national interests, including economic, security, and cultural objectives.
  10. Evolving Techniques (Public/Digital) – It is evolving from solely state-to-state communication to involving public diplomacy (influencing foreign public opinion) and digital diplomacy to adapt to technological advancements.

These characteristics ensure that diplomacy remains a structured yet flexible tool for managing state interactions.

Q17. Discuss India-Russia relations.

Ans. The Indo-Russia relationship is called as “all-weather friendship.” Indian always enjoyed a very close friendship ties with the USSR. The USSR got disintegrated in 1991 and Russia became its successor. Russia inherited the seat of USSR in the UN Security Council. USSR was composed of Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belorussia, Estonia, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kirgiziya, Latvia, Lithuania, Moldavia, Russia, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Ukraine and Uzbekistan.

Russia has been a longstanding and time-tested partner for India. Development of India-Russia relations has been a key pillar of India's foreign policy. Soviet support for India on key issues like Kashmir and Goa’s liberation reflected shared strategic interests. The 1971 Treaty of Peace, Friendship, and Cooperation was pivotal during the Bangladesh Liberation War. Since the signing of the “Declaration on the India-Russia Strategic Partnership” in October 2000 (during the visit of President Putin), India-Russia ties have acquired a qualitatively new character with enhanced levels of cooperation in almost all areas, including political, security, defence, trade and economy, science & technology, culture, and people-to-people ties. During the visit of the Russian President to India in December 2010, the Strategic Partnership was elevated to the level of “Special and Privileged Strategic Partnership.”

Areas of Cooperation / Bilateral Relations

Areas of cooperation between any two countries can be of various aspects such as political, economic, defence, trade, cultural etc.

Political Cooperation

Russia supports India’s candidature on the UNSC permanent seat. Both are permanent members of BRICS and SCO (Shanghai Cooperation Organisation). Russia has always been supporting India’s stand on Kashmir issue and Terrorism. The Annual Summit between the Prime Minister of India and the President of the Russian Federation is the highest institutionalized dialogue mechanism in the strategic partnership between India and Russia.

Trade and Economic Cooperation

The primary mechanism at the government level for enhancing trade and economic cooperation is the India-Russia Intergovernmental Commission for Trade, Economic, Scientific & Cultural Cooperation (IRIGC-TEC), co-chaired by EAM from the Indian side and First DPM Denis Manturov from the Russian side. Intensifying the trade and economic relations has been identified as a priority area by both the leaders who had set the targets of increasing bilateral investment to $50 billion (by 2025) and bilateral trade to $100 billion (by 2030). Bilateral trade between India and Russia reached a record high of USD 68.7 billion in FY 2024-25.

  • Major export items from India include - pharmaceuticals, organic and inorganic chemicals, iron & steel and marine products.
  • Major import items from Russia include - oil and petroleum products, vegetable oil (particularly sunflower oil), fertilizers, coking coal, precious stones and metals.

India has been receiving military hardware, components of IT, biotechnology, nanotechnology, non-conventional energy etc.  from Russia. It has got a stake in Sakhalin known for huge reserves of natural gas and oil. India's stake in the Sakhalin-1 oil and gas project in Russia is held by ONGC Videsh Ltd., the overseas investment arm of India's state-owned Oil and Natural Gas Corporation (ONGC). ONGC Videsh owns a 20% participating interest in the project. The Sakhalin-1 project involves developing offshore oil and gas fields off the east coast of Sakhalin Island.

The fact that India-Russia do not have a free trade agreement is one of the reasons why their economic cooperation is not well developed. The major bilateral investments by Russia in India are in the oil and gas, petrochemicals, banking, railways and steel sectors, while Indian investments in Russia are mainly in oil and gas and pharmaceuticals sectors. The Rupee-Ruble trade mechanism and FTA negotiations with Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU) reflect this shift.

India-Russia connectivity projects like International North-South Transport Corridor and Chennai-Vladivostok Corridor bypass traditional routes, reducing dependency on volatile maritime chokepoints.  These routes enhance logistical efficiency and reduce trade time. INSTC cuts shipping time by 40%, while the Chennai-Vladivostok Corridor reduces transit days from 40 to 24, boosting bilateral trade efficiency.

Defence Cooperation

India has longstanding and wide-ranging cooperation with Russia in the field of defence. India-Russia military technical cooperation has evolved from a buyer-seller framework to one involving joint research, development and production of advanced defence technologies and systems.

An India-Russia cooperation agreement was signed in December 1988. It has resulted in the sale of a multitude of defence equipment to India and also the emergence of the countries as ‘development partners’ as opposed to purely a ‘buyer-seller relationship.

Raksha Mantri and Russian Defence Minister co-chair the India-Russia Inter-Governmental Commission on Military & Military-Technical Cooperation (IRIGC-M&MTC).

India and Russia have several major joint military programmes including:

  1. Brahmos Cruise Missile programme
  2. 5th generation fighter jet programme
  3. Sukhoi Su – 30 MKI programme
  4. Ilyushin/HAL Tactical Transport Aircraft

Around more than 70% of India’s military hardware has come from Russia either under selling and purchasing relationship or under co-development relationship. The biggest achievement of India-Russia defence cooperation is the Brahmos Missile which India has developed under joint cooperation and joint production having a range of 290 km. Russia still supplies 45% of India’s defence imports, despite India diversifying to other suppliers like France and Israel.

India – Russia Joint Exercise:

  1. Indra – a joint biannual defence exercise. It is conducted in all three formats – army, navy and air force.
  2. Farkhor Airbase – this airbase based in Tajikistan is jointly operated by India and Russia.

Science and Technology Cooperation

India & Russia work together on basic sciences, materials science, mathematics and cutting-edge areas like India’s manned spaceflight program (Gaganyaan), nanotechnologies etc.

India’s only nuclear power plant established with another country is in Kudankulam in Tamil Nadu which is established in collaboration with Russia. Russian assistance in the Kudankulam Nuclear Power Plant continues to be a cornerstone of the partnership. 

In 2024, India and Russia expanded the Make in India initiative to include joint production of high-speed electric trains for Indian Railways. In 2024, India and Russia renewed commitments to cooperate on advanced space research, including lunar and human space missions.

Partnerships on GLONASS satellite navigation demonstrate high-tech synergy.

Education Perspective

Cooperation between India and Russia in the field of education is multifaceted and longstanding in nature. Presence of Indian students in Russian institutes for courses in disciplines such as medicine, engineering, economics, sciences and other subjects. Medical students comprise the largest group among Indian students studying in Russia. Indology is taught in several Russian universities apart from Indian languages such as Hindi and Sanskrit. At the school-level, the Atal Innovation Mission of India and SIRIUS Centre work together as part of an initiative envisioned by Prime Minister and President Putin.

In context of collaboration in higher education including between universities/institutes, the following main mechanisms are playing an active role - Educational Exchange Programme (EEP) between the two governments, Network of Higher Education Institutions of India and Russia (known as the RIN), Scheme for Promotion of Academic and Research Collaboration (SPARC), and the Global Initiative of Academic Networks (GIAN) programme.

Cultural Cooperation

India and Russia have deep and historic cultural linkages. Various writers, philosophers, thinkers and artists have mutual influence on each other’s art, culture and societies. The Jawaharlal Nehru Cultural Centre (JNCC), Moscow, maintains close cooperation with leading Russian institutions. Indian cinema which was especially popular in the Soviet period has continued to do so with screenings in most major cities and urban centres. Yoga is also immensely popular across Russia.

Multilateral Cooperation

India and Russia cooperate closely at several multilateral platforms such as the UN, G20, BRICS & SCO. This cooperation has been strengthened further through regular exchanges and mutual support during India’s Presidencies of the G20 and SCO in 2023 and Russia’s BRICS Presidency in 2024. Russia has consistently expressed support for India’s candidature for a permanent seat in the UN Security Council.

Challenges faced by India in navigating relations with Russia

There are various aspects which proves to be an obstacle/create hindrance in Indo-Russia relations. Some major issues are as follows:

  1. The Asian Geo-Politics – Under the US Pivot to Asia Policy, US is deploying more than 60% of its arms strength in the Indian Ocean region simply to counter the rising Chinese influence. Under this policy, India and Japan are being promoted stand up against the Chinese hegemony in in the Asia Pacific region. In response to such approach of the USA, Russia has taken a stand to support China against the USA interference in South-China and East-China Sea.
  2. In 2009, India went for MMRCA (Multi Model Role Combat Aircraft) bidding. The contract was awarded to the Dassault Company of France which was manufacturing Rafale, instead to the Russian company. This incidence annoyed Russia against India.
  3. Russia had agreed to cooperate with Pakistan in combating terrorism and providing counter insurgency and counter terrorism strategy to Pakistan. Certainly India showed unhappiness with Russia over its new defence cooperation agreement with Pakistan which marks a significant shift from the past.
  4. Balancing Ties with the West and Russia - India’s growing ties with the US and EU, especially through platforms like Quad and trade agreements negotiations with EU and UK, complicate its relationship with Russia. Western pressure on India to align with sanctions against Russia puts its strategic autonomy at stake. 
  5. Managing the Trade Deficit - India’s trade with Russia is heavily skewed, with imports (mostly oil and fertilizers) vastly outpacing exports, leading to a significant trade imbalance. Limited diversification of exports compounds the issue. 
  6. Financial and Logistical Challenges - Western sanctions on Russia complicate financial transactions, investments, and logistics for India-Russia trade, increasing costs and uncertainty.  Mechanisms like the Rupee-Ruble trade face implementation challenges.
  7. Multilateral Pressure and Abstinence from Voting - India’s balancing act is strained by divergent stances on global crises like Ukraine, where India’s neutral position contrasts with expectations of Multilateral Institutions like the United Nation Security Council.
  8. Geopolitical Uncertainty in Central Asia: India’s strategic initiatives, such as INSTC, depend on stable connectivity through Central Asia, a region getting recently influenced heavily by Chinese presence. 

Conclusion

The India-Russia relationship is a cornerstone of India's strategic foreign policy amid shifting global order. While the partnership continues to thrive in areas like defence, energy, and multilateral diplomacy, challenges such as trade imbalances, logistical hurdles, and Russia’s growing proximity to China require careful navigation. By diversifying economic ties, enhancing connectivity, and promoting joint ventures in emerging sectors, India can ensure that its relationship with Russia remains robust and contributes positively to global diplomacy.

In the past two years, the bilateral trade has expanded significantly. There are discussions on ways to increase exports from India as well as developing new models of cooperation. Both countries are also looking to strengthen inter-regional cooperation, especially with the Russian Far East and promote connectivity initiatives like the International North-South Transport Corridor, the Chennai-Vladivostok Eastern Maritime Corridor and the Northern Sea Route. There is a synergy between Russia’s pivot to the East, its resources and technology and India’s own flagship initiatives such as Atmanirbhar Bharat and Make in India.

Q18. Discuss main causes of Decolonisation. Also explain its impact on World Order.

Ans. Decolonization refers to the process by which colonies gain independence from their colonial rulers and establish their own self-governing and sovereign nations.  It involves the political, social, and economic transformation of a colony into an independent state. 

Historically, decolonization occurred primarily during the 20th century when many European colonial powers relinquished their control over colonies in Africa, Asia, the Caribbean, and the Pacific. Decolonization was a significant global movement driven by various factors, including anti-colonial struggles, nationalist movements, changes in international relations, and a growing recognition of the right to self-determination.

When the United Nations was established in 1945, the organisation had 51 countries as its members. By 1995, UN celebrated 50 years of its existence and membership had gone up to 185 countries. Today, 193 countries are the members of United Nations. The emergence of large number of states that became UN members was mainly on account of the end of colonialism.

With the termination of European imperialism which started after World War – II, several new sovereign states came into existence in all parts of the world. The process of this change came to be described as decolonization. Most Asian countries became independent by the end of 1940s. While the American colony of Philippines had achieved independence in 1946, the process of decolonization started with India and last of the colonies, i.e., Namibia achieved independence from South Africa in 1990. 

Decolonization or the Disintegration of Western Colonial Empire had 2 broad components:

  1. A demand by the subject people of the colonies supported by their freedom struggles for independence.
  2. The mobility or unwillingness of the colonial power to retain their hold over the colonies.

One of the biggest changes that occurred after decolonisation was multiplication of sovereign states. Most of the process of decolonisation was completed in about 25 years of time. Though, some countries like Namibia had to struggle for some more time.

The period of decolonization was dominated by cold war. Therefore, the new states were bound to be influenced by the prevailing international environment. As the world was divided into two power blocs, the new states were expected to join either of the two.

Many countries remained non-aligned and refused to be in either of the two blocs and came to be treated as the Third World. Thus, the process of decolonisation directly influenced the third world.

Causes of Decolonization

Decolonization was driven by a combination of factors that contributed to the dismantling of colonial empires and the granting of independence to colonies. Here are some key causes of decolonization:

  1. Nationalism and Independence Movements - Nationalist movements emerged in many colonized regions, fuelled by a desire for self-determination and political independence. Local leaders and intellectuals mobilized people around a shared sense of national identity, advocating for the end of colonial rule and the establishment of independent nations. 
  2. World Wars and Global Shifts - The world wars, especially World War II, had a significant impact on the process of decolonization. These conflicts weakened colonial powers and exposed the contradictions of maintaining vast colonial empires while fighting for freedom and democracy. The war also provided opportunities for nationalist movements to gain support and leverage their demands for independence. 
  3. International Pressure and Human Rights - The United Nations, established after World War II, played a crucial role in advancing the principles of self-determination and human rights. The UN Charter emphasized the right of all peoples to determine their political status and pursue economic, social, and cultural development. This international pressure pushed colonial powers to reassess their colonial policies and grant independence to their colonies.
  4. Economic and Political Changes - Economic factors also played a role in decolonization. The economic costs of maintaining colonies became increasingly burdensome for colonial powers, especially as they faced economic challenges at home. Additionally, the rise of new economic powers and the Cold War rivalry created new geopolitical dynamics, prompting colonial powers to reconsider their colonial holdings. 
  5. Resistance and Anti-Colonial Movements - Colonized populations actively resisted colonial rule through various means, including protests, strikes, armed uprisings, and civil disobedience. Anti-colonial movements, such as the Indian independence movement led by Mahatma Gandhi, the African National Congress in South Africa, and the Viet Minh in Vietnam, gained significant support and garnered international attention. These movements increased pressure on colonial powers to address the demands for independence. 
  6. Changing International Norms - The Post-World War II era saw a shift in global norms and attitudes towards colonialism. The concept of colonialism came under scrutiny as human rights, equality, and self-determination became central principles in international relations. This changing global perspective delegitimized colonialism and created a conducive environment for decolonization efforts. 

Key Aspects / Impact on International Relations:

The decolonization process typically involved the following key aspects:

  1. Political Independence and Sovereignty - Decolonization involved the transfer of political power from colonial rulers to local governments or nationalist movements.  This often included the establishment of new constitutions, national institutions, and systems of governance. Beyond local governance, this created a Crisis of Legitimacy for the old imperial order. It established "Sovereign Equality" as the primary norm of international law, meaning that a small newly independent nation theoretically held the same legal standing as its former colonizer in global affairs.
  2. End of Colonial Rule - Decolonization marked the end of colonial rule and the withdrawal of colonial administrations and institutions. This allowed the newly independent nations to establish their own systems of government and policies that reflected the aspirations and needs of their people. This withdrawal often created a Power Vacuum. In international relations, this led to immediate competition between the US and USSR to "fill" that vacuum with their respective ideologies, turning many newly independent regions into Cold War frontiers.
  3. Self-Determination - Self-determination, the principle that people have the right to determine their own political status and freely pursue their economic, social, and cultural development, was a central principle of decolonization. It recognized the right of colonized peoples to determine their own future and shape their own destinies. This principle fundamentally changed the United Nations Charter from a document focused on "Great Power" stability to one focused on "Human Rights" and "Anti-colonialism." It delegitimized the concept of "spheres of influence" in favour of national autonomy.
  4. Economic Challenges - Decolonization often brought economic challenges as newly independent nations inherited colonial economic structures that were geared towards the interests of the colonizers. These countries faced the task of building their own economies, addressing issues of poverty, inequality, and developing sustainable economic systems. This led to the emergence of the North-South Divide. In international relations, this triggered the demand for a New International Economic Order (NIEO), where developing nations argued that political independence was meaningless without "economic decolonization" and fairer trade terms.
  5. Nation-Building - Decolonization involved the process of nation-building, as newly independent countries sought to establish their national identities, promote unity among diverse ethnic, cultural, and linguistic groups, and build inclusive societies. Because colonial borders were kept intact, nation-building often led to Secessionist Movements and Ethnic Conflicts. This forced the international community to frequently intervene through UN Peacekeeping missions, redefining the role of the UN in domestic conflicts.
  6. Global Impact - Decolonization had a significant impact on the global geopolitical landscape. It reshaped international relations, led to the formation of new states, and increased the diversity of voices in global forums such as the United Nations. The most significant impact was the making of NAM. The birth of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) meant the world was no longer just Bipolar (US vs. USSR). These nations acted as a "moral bloc," pressuring superpowers toward disarmament and focusing global attention on development over militarization.
  7. Expansion of International Law - Decolonization forced international law to evolve. New laws were created to address the "Rights of Indigenous Peoples" and the "Permanent Sovereignty over Natural Resources," ensuring that former colonies had legal claim to their own minerals and oil.
  8. Democratization of Global Forums - Before 1945, international relations were "Eurocentric." Decolonization democratized global diplomacy; the UN General Assembly became a space where the "Global South" held a voting majority, often outvoting the Western powers on issues of racism, apartheid, and economic justice.

Decolonization did not just create new countries; it destroyed the old European-dominated "Balance of Power" and replaced it with a complex, multicultural, and economically stratified global system.